Egészségügy | Anatómia » Histology, Basic and Systematic, Laboratory Handbook

Source: http://www.doksinet Department of Anatomy ANAT 2241 Histology: Basic and Systematic Semester 1, 2016 Laboratory Handbook CRICOS Provider Code 00098G Source: http://www.doksinet Contents STAFF. 3 UNITS OF CREDIT . 3 COURSE AIM AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES . 3 HISTOLOGY BACKGROUND . 4 TEXTBOOKS . 4 ASSESSMENTS . 5 STUDY AND REVISION FACILITIES . 5 GENERAL ADVICE IN HISTOLOGY. 6 TIMETABLE . 7 Student Risk Assessment. 9 LAB WORKBOOK . 10 WEEK 1: TOPIC A: The Virtual Microscope, Histological Techniques, Artefacts, Stereology, Electron Microscopy And Cell Ultrastructure . 10 WEEK 1: TOPIC B: Covering and Lining Epithelia . 15 WEEK 2: TOPIC A: Glandular Epithelia . 17 WEEK 2: TOPIC B: Connective Tissue I: Components . 20 WEEK 3: TOPIC A: Connective Tissue II: Types . 22 WEEK 3: TOPIC B: Bone, Bone Formation and Joints . 24 WEEK 4: TOPIC A: Blood and Blood Formation . 27 WEEK 4: TOPIC B: Muscle . 30 WEEK 5: TOPICS A and B: Nervous Tissue (PNS & CNS) . 33 WEEK 5: TOPIC B:

Central Nervous Tissue . 34 SYSTEMS HISTOLOGY COMPONENT . 36 WEEK 6: TOPIC A: Cardiovascular System. 36 WEEK 6: TOPIC B: Respiratory System . 39 WEEK 8: TOPIC A: Integumentary System (Skin) . 42 WEEK 8: TOPIC B: Liver, Gallbladder and Pancreas . 45 WEEK 9: TOPIC A: Gastro-Intestinal System I . 47 WEEK 9: TOPIC B: Gastro-Intestinal System II . 50 WEEK 10: TOPIC A: Lymphatic Tissue and the Immune System . 52 WEEK 10: TOPIC B: Endocrine System . 55 WEEK 11: TOPIC A: Urinary System . 57 WEEK 11: TOPIC B: Female Reproductive System . 59 WEEK 12: TOPIC A: Male Reproductive System . 62 WEEK 12: TOPIC B: Special Sense Organ: The Eye . 64 1 Source: http://www.doksinet 2 Source: http://www.doksinet STAFF COURSE CONVENOR and LECTURER: Patrick de Permentier p.depermentier@unsweduau Room 210, Second Floor, Wallace Wurth Building T: 9385 2465 COURSE TUTOR: Ms Jessica Lazarus Jessica.lazarus@unsweduau DEMONSTRATORS: Merryn Brettle Benjamin Rowlands UNITS OF CREDIT ANAT2241 Histology: Basic

and Systematic is a 6UOC course. It is offered in the Anatomy major in the BSc and BMedSc programs. As a pre-requisite to PATH2201 Processes in Disease, it provides a vital link to the study of disorders when examined microscopically. Students need to understand normal histological morphology of cells, tissues and organs before they can appreciate pathological conditions of tissues under the virtual microscope. MODIFICATIONS TO THE COURSE IN 2014-2015 The 2 x 2 hour practical have been condensed into a single 3 hr session and the use of annotation has been refined through the use of the online system SLICE. COURSE AIM AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES The aim of this course is to provide students with a thorough understanding of the microscopic appearance and function of normal structures in the human body. This allows students to integrate this information with other disciplines such as Gross Anatomy, Pathology, and Physiology. The Basic Histology component of the course will concentrate

on the microanatomy of the four basic tissues, namely: epithelial tissue, including glandular tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue. Lectures will provide you with an outline of the topic, but you are expected to supplement the information with private study. The laboratory sessions are directly linked to the lectures. At the end of each laboratory class, make sure you have covered, and understand, the specific objectives. Discussion during the class is encouraged. Each laboratory class may have one or more questions to be answered. These questions are meant to promote enquiry and discussion with the teachers acting as facilitators to guide you. The Systematic Histology component of the course will investigate how these basic tissues combine to form organs, which operate together to maintain homeostasis. By 3 Source: http://www.doksinet convention, organs, which work together to achieve a particular function are grouped together as systems (e.g respiratory

system, etc) You are encouraged to use the computers during class and also for private revision. In addition, external virtual microscopy databases are continually being installed in the computers to allow greater access to a variety of microscopic material. HISTOLOGY BACKGROUND Anatomy is the study of the structure of organs and tissues at the MACROSCOPIC (or gross) level. Histology is the study of organ and tissue structure at the MICROSCOPIC level - it can be considered as microanatomy. Histology provides an insight into how cellular components are structurally and functionally related. It draws its foundations in Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Physiology as well as Gross Anatomy. Histology provides valuable information on why tissues and organs are shaped as they are. Histology is one of the bases of biomedical sciences Modern histological techniques allow us to explore and gain an understanding of biochemical and physiological processes and how these are changed when

structure is changed, as occurs, for instance, in many disease processes. By the end of this course, students should have a thorough understanding of the tissues and systems of the body by microscopic examination and to apply their knowledge to functional states examined in Physiology and diseased states examined in Pathology. TEXTBOOKS Several books provide adequate coverage of the material in this course. A number of suggestions have been included on the following list. An atlas on its own usually only covers the practical part of the course, so you will need access to a textbook to cover the theory part of the course. Combined Texts and Atlas Young, B., O’Dowd, G and Woodford, P (2014) Wheater’s Functional Histology. A Text and Colour Atlas 6th ed Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh. Mesher, A. (2013) Junqueira’s Basic Histology Text & Atlas 13th ed, McGraw-Hill. Atlas Eroschenko, V.P and di Fiore MSH (2013) di Fiore’s Atlas of Histolog with functional correlations.y 12th

ed Wolters Kluwer / Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins Int., Baltimore 4 Source: http://www.doksinet ASSESSMENTS 1. Practical exams There will be TWO practical exams, a Mid-Session one (Monday April 18) and a Final practical exam at the end-of-Session. 2. Written examinations There will be TWO written papers. The first one is in Mid-Session immediately before the Mid-Session Practical examination on Monday April 18 and the second one is at the end of the Session. ASSESSMENTS MARKS Mid-Session Practical Exam 10% Mid-Session Theory Exam 20% Final Practical Exam 30% Final Theory Exam 40% Practical and theory examinations are based on specific objectives, learning activities and lecture material. In practical examinations, you will be expected to be able to identify microscopic structures (cells and tissues) studied during the laboratory sessions as well as provide some brief functions. The examination is designed to test the understanding of the microscopic organisation of

the normal tissues of the human body and relate them to their functional importance. STUDY AND REVISION FACILITIES The histology laboratories in rooms G06 and G07 of the Ground Floor of the Wallace Wurth building are generally open from about 8 am to 5.30 pm Monday to Friday They may be used by students during these hours, provided the rooms are not required for other classes. The laboratories are closed on weekends and public holidays Laboratory coats are NOT required in the histology laboratories. Food and drinks are NOT permitted in the laboratories. Please read this manual/outline in conjunction with the following pages on the School of Medical Sciences website: • Advice for Students • Learning Resources (or see "STUDENTS" tab at medicalsciences.medunsweduau ) 5 Source: http://www.doksinet GENERAL ADVICE IN HISTOLOGY In Histology, you are expected to study the features of histological preparations as virtual images, which were scanned from real stained tissue

sections, which were then mounted on glass slides and listed in the Learning Activities. Histological sections are slices of tissue usually from 5-8µm thick (see Dimensions). Low power sketches or notes made may help you to remember the main histological features of a section, e.g, which major tissue components are present Note the 2-D shapes in the section and the major tissue components present and try to determine the approximate 3-D shape of the whole organ from which the section was taken. Is the section cut randomly through the organ? Is there an obvious lumen in the section? Abbreviations: XS - cross section TS - transverse section LS - longitudinal section LM - light microscope or light micrograph EM - electron microscope, or electron micrograph 3 6 Dimensions: 1mm = 10 micrometres (µm) = 10 nanometres (nm) -6 Note: A micrometre is often called a "micron" (µm); 1µm = 10 m Resolving Powers: Unaided eye - approx. 01 mm = 100µm Light microscope - approx. 01 µm =

100nm Electron microscope - approx. 1 nm Virtual Slides The virtual histology slides for this and the subsequent practicals can be found at: moodle.teltunsweduau/course/viewphp?id=21070 Student Key: Vslides Useful Histology resources to employ during the practicals or for revision After entering the Menu, go to Class Program and then to Anatomy a) Fabric of Life b) Neocortex Virtual Microscope-Histology-Zurich c) Dr Lazer’s Histology Drawings d) Digital Atlas of Electron Microscopy by J K Brueckner e) http://www.histology-worldcom/stains/stainshtm 6 Source: http://www.doksinet TIMETABLE The course involves 5 hours per week of instruction. This involves 2 x 1-hour lectures followed by a 3-hour practical class where students under the guidance of demonstrators will employ a computer to examine virtual slides of microscopic material. Computers are shared between two to three students Lectures Monday 4–5pm, Science Theatre AND Tuesday 5–6pm, Rex Vowels Theatre (All lectures are

conducted from Weeks 1 to 12). Laboratory Sessions Group A Thursday 2–5pm, Rooms G6 & G7, Wallace Wurth Building (Weeks 1 to 12) Group B Friday 10 am – 1 pm, Rooms G6, & G7, Wallace Wurth Building (Weeks 1 to 12) Group B is repeated material, which was delivered in Group A. NOTE: You must remain in your allocated Laboratory timeslots. 7 Source: http://www.doksinet Histology of Basic Tissues and Systems Week Lecture Lecture and Laboratory Class Topics Dates 1A 29/2 Introducing the course 1B 1/3 Covering and Lining Epithelia 2A 7/3 Glandular Epithelia 2B 8/3 Connective tissue I: Components 3A 14/3 Connective tissue II: Types 3B 15/3 Bone, Bone Formation and Joints 4A 21/3 Blood 4B 22/3 Muscle NO PRACTICALS IN WEEK 4 DUE TO GOOD FRIDAY. MID-SESSION RECESS 28/3/16 TO 3/4/16 5A 4/4 Nervous tissue (PNS) 5B 5/4 Nervous tissue (CNS) 6A 11/4 Cardiovascular system 6B 12/4 Respiratory system 7B 18/4 Integumentary system Immediately after

this Monday lecture in Week 7 in the Science Theatre there will be the mid-session Theory and Practical examinations. 8A 29/4 Liver, Gallbladder and Pancreas 8B 25/4 Gastro-intestinal system I (Due to ANZAC Day, this lecture can be viewed on line via Echo) 9A 26/4 Gastro-intestinal system II 9B 2/5 Lymphatic tissue and the Immune system 10 A 3/5 Endocrine system 10 B 9/5 Urinary system 11 A 10/5 Female reproductive system 11 B 69/5 Male reproductive system 12 A 17/5 Eye 13 REVISION IN THE PRACTICAL TIME SLOTS Final Practical Examination (date, time and place to be announced) 8 Source: http://www.doksinet Science Teaching Laboratory ANAT2241 in G6/G7 Wallace Wurth building Student Risk Assessment Practicals from weeks 1 to 12 in Semester 1, 2016. Hazards Risks Controls Ergonomics Musculoskeletal pain. Correct workstation set-up. Electrical Shock/fire Check electrical equipment in good condition before use. All electrical equipment tested and

tagged. Personal Protective Workstation set-upEquipment Not necessary in these practicals (see note). Monitor armdistance away Top of monitor at eye-height Elbow at 90º angle Monitor tilt Adjust seat back for lumbar support Emergency Procedures In the event of an alarm, follow the instructions of the demonstrator. The initial sound is advising you to prepare for evacuation and during this time start packing up your things. The second sound gives instruction to leave. The Wallace Wurth assembly point is the lawn in front of the Chancellery In the event of an injury, inform the demonstrator. First aiders and contact details are on display by the lifts There is a First Aid Kit in the laboratory. Clean up and waste disposal No apparatus or chemicals used in these practicals. Declaration I have read and understand the safety requirements for these practical classes and I will observe these requirements. Signature:Date: Student Number: 9 Source: http://www.doksinet LAB WORKBOOK

WEEK 1: TOPIC A: The Virtual Microscope, Histological Techniques, Artefacts, Stereology, Electron Microscopy And Cell Ultrastructure THE VIRTUAL MICROSCOPE General Objective An introduction to the use of the virtual microscope. Specific Objective and Learning Activities To learn the correct use of virtual microscopy using computers and to employ various virtual histological databases for enhancing learning as well as for revision purposes. The change from conventional to virtual microscopy Learning of histology and histopathology by undergraduate students in Medicine and Science at UNSW was limited by the technical and practical barriers imposed by conventional microscopy such as difficulty with mastering optimum focus and illumination, students being isolated at their own microscope limiting collaboration with peers and demonstrators, problems with loss or breakage of glass slides, differential staining and tissue section variability, many students were unable to view the same

tissue/cells as those demonstrated by the lecturer causing students to become distracted and frustrated and histology and histopathology revision was limited by laboratory access out of class times. UNSW was the first institution outside of North America (University of Iowa) to introduce virtual microscopy in undergraduate teaching. It started with the Department of Pathology converting their glass slide collection to virtual images in 2002. This makes UNSW the first institution outside of North America (University of Iowa) to employ virtual slides. What are virtual slides? High magnification scanned digital images of tissue sections on glass slides acquired using a x40 microscope lens stored in a multi-resolution file format and viewed in a web browser window with software capacity to “click and drag” and “zoom in” on the image, which simulates the examination of glass slides with a real microscope, but with the added benefits of always having optimal focus and contrast, with

orientation maintained and avoiding section-to-section variability. This allows all students to examine the same scanned tissue section. HISTOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES General Objective: To understand the basic steps in preparing histological slides for light microscopy. Specific Objective To know the rationale and the procedures in preparing histological slides from biological specimens. Learning Activity Read sections below on General Hints on Staining Procedures. 10 Source: http://www.doksinet General Hints on Staining Sections 1. Clearing is a term used to refer to the stage where a section is immersed in a liquid, which is miscible with both paraffin wax and with alcohol (specifically, ethanol). The term arises because the tissue becomes transparent, due to the high refractive index of the clearing liquid (usually xylene). 2. Dehydrate means to remove water from the section, by soaking the section in increasing concentrations of alcohol (70%, 95%, and 100% also known as absolute

alcohol). The converse procedure is usually described as "bringing the sections to water" or "rehydration". 3. Differentiation is the partial de-staining of a purposely overstained section by washing the section in a simple solution such as water, or dilute acid or dilute acid alcohol. It is a regressive step in the staining procedure whereby the water or alcohol simply redissolves the stain in the section. Acid alcohol is 1% hydrochloric acid in 70% alcohol. Differentiation preferentially removes the stain from sites where the dye is only loosely bound. 4. Counterstaining is the application of a second stain to the section to stain additional components of the tissue. Usually the second stain produces a complementary colour reaction to that of the first: e.g Eosin after Haematoxylin Summary of Stains Although they are not examinable, you should have knowledge of some of the common histological stains as outlined below: Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) is the most

commonly used histological stain. It has 2 components. Haematoxylin is the main ingredient of a cationic (basic) stain, which appears black, blue or purple. It stains acidic structures particularly nuclei Structures stained by Haematoxylin are said to be basophilic. Eosin is an anionic (acidic) dye, red in color. It stains tissues various tones of pink to red In a well stained preparation, the following staining occurs: collagen, pale pink; cytoplasm, pink; cytoplasm of skeletal muscle; red; erythrocytes, bright red. Haematoxylin and Van Gieson has 2 acidic dyes, namely Picric acid and Acid Fuchsin. Collagen is stained red by the acid Fuchsin, nuclei black by the Haematoxylin and all other tissue elements yellow by the Picric acid. It can be combined with Verhoeff’s elastin to show elastic fibers as black. Romanowski stains are used for blood. They consist of a mixture of dyes derived from Methylene Blue and Eosin. Objects are stained and described for 4 colours namely basophilic

(blue), acidophilic or eosinophilic (red), azurophilic (purple) and neutrophilic (salmon pink). Osmium tetroxide is used to stain lipids, e.g in adipose tissue or myelinated nerve fibers Unsaturated bonds in the lipids reduce the osmium tetroxide to black osmium. Periodic acid and Shiff’s reagent (PAS) show up carbohydrate groups (eg mucins, glycogen, glycocalyx) as pink or magenta. This is very useful for goblet cells and basement membranes. 11 Source: http://www.doksinet ARTEFACTS Tissue is usually fixed and embedded in such material as paraffin, gelatine, resin etc. prior to sectioning. A range of knives (metal, glass, diamond) are used on various cutting machines -microtomes to obtain the sections. As a result the tissue can sometimes be pushed out of shape and scratches, tears, or folds can appear. Excessive drying can create spaces that do not exist, and uneven thickness can cause unusual colouring effects. These extra features are called artefacts Virtual Slides

Description of Artefact Kidney (LS), human Small intestine, (jejunum), primate Aorta (TS), human Trachea, human Tendon, cat Thyroid gland, primate Gall bladder, human 12 Source: http://www.doksinet STEREOLOGY General Objective To understand the principles of studying 3-dimensional shapes (morphology) of biological structures based on examination and interpretation of 2-dimensional light microscopic and electron microscopic images (stereology). Specific Objectives 1. To recognise the shapes found in sections of basic tissues using the light microscope. A demonstration on virtual slides showing testes, (LS, cat), kidney tubules (human kidney, LS) and of motor cells in the spinal cord (ox) will clarify this. 2. To summarize the main problems in the interpretation of histological sections, including the reconstruction of 3-dimensional form and the interpretation of artefacts. A histologist needs to think geometrically so as to build a 3-dimensional picture of a structure,

which is essentially 2-dimensional. This is an important skill to develop Remember that the structure of the tissue is intimately related to its function; therefore the 3-D reconstruction is an important step to understanding the function of a particular tissue. A section contains numerous elements cut at different angles, common terms used to describe the orientation of planes of section are: transverse, longitudinal, and oblique. ELECTRON MICROSCOPY AND CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE General Objectives: To understand electron microscopic techniques and recognise the structure of basic cell organelles Specific Objectives: 1. To understand the differences between what is viewed under the light microscope and the electron microscope. 2. To recognise the most important organelles viewed in electron micrographs (EM) and to appreciate the correlation between their ultrastructure and their light microscopic (LM) structure. Learning Activities: Examine the following light microscope virtual slides,

identify, draw and label the structures and note their function. Virtual Slides Tissue Structures Blood Smear Human (Buffy Coat) Erythrocytes Platelets Leucocytes Spinal cord Ox Motor neuron Drawing Nucleus Nucleolus Cell membrane Nuclear envelope Nissl granules 13 Source: http://www.doksinet After viewing the light microscopic features outlined above in the virtual slides of blood and the spinal cord, you should examine the EM equivalent structures using the Digital Atlas of Electron Microscopy and your histology textbook(s). Examine electron micrographs and make sure you understand the EM appearance and structure of: nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear envelope, nuclear pore, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (smooth & rough), ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, microtubules, microfilaments, plasma (cell) membrane, microvilli, stereocilia, cilia, and junctional complexes. Virtual Slides Tissue Structures Small intestine, primate Jejunum Microvilli (striated, brush

border) Trachea, human Drawing Goblet cells Tracheal wall Cilia Again examine the EM equivalent appearance of the LM structures shown in the small intestine and trachea, namely microvilli, Goblet cells and cilia. Question: Draw a typical cell and include many of the cell organelles described above. Question: What do Nissl granules represent under the electron microscope? 14 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 1: TOPIC B: Covering and Lining Epithelia General Objective To learn the structure and function of covering and lining epithelia. Specific Objectives 1. To identify covering and lining epithelia 2. To understand the terms endothelium, and mesothelium 3. To classify epithelia on the basis of cell morphology and cell arrangement (eg layering), noting the general absence of blood vessels in epithelia. 4. To study the surface specializations of some epithelial cells: brush or striated border (microvilli) and motile cilia and to recognise these specialisation in electron

micrographs. Learning Activities To identify, draw and label the various types of epithelium (simple, stratified and pseudostratified) and to discuss some of the special functional features associated with their structure. 1. Simple epithelium Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells covering a tissue. It is usually found lining structures such as blood vessels, ducts or glands. The cells may be flattened (squamous), cuboidal or columnar according to their function. The epithelium is classified according to the shape of the cells: A. Simple squamous epithelium: The lumen of blood vessels of all sizes is lined by a single layer of squamous endothelial cells providing a smooth, low-friction surface to circulating blood cells (virtual slides of human aorta). In the virtual slide of rat kidney, Bowman’s capsule is lined with a layer of simple squamous cells called the mesothelium indicating their origin. B. Simple cuboidal epithelium: Thyroid follicles are lined a single

layer of cuboidal cells (virtual slide of primate thyroid gland). Describe the position of the nuclei within the cell. Note: These cells are secretory cells, and the height of the cell in the follicles indicates activity. Low cuboidal cells have low level activity The simple cuboidal epithelium in the tubules of a kidney has an absorptive function (virtual slide of rat kidney). In this virtual slide, note the basement membrane (purple-red) and the brush border (microvilli), which is characteristic of absorptive cells. C. Simple columnar epithelium (virtual slide of human gallbladder): Question: Where is the nucleus found in columnar cells? 15 Source: http://www.doksinet 2. Pseudostratified epithelium (virtual slide of human trachea) All the epithelial cells in pseudostratified epithelium make contact with the basement membrane, but not all cells reach the surface of the epithelium. This may be quite difficult to visualise, discuss the reasons for this. The cells may be ciliated

(trachea). 3. Stratified epithelium (virtual slides of human oesophagus, and human thick skin (palm)) Stratified epithelium has a least 2 distinct layers of cells. The basal layer is in contact with the basement membrane the other(s) is/are on top. The uppermost (apical) layer classifies the epithelium as squamous, cuboidal or columnar. Examine the slides listed and classify each type of epithelium. Examine the epithelium in the sweat gland ducts in the virtual slide of thick skin. Epithelial type Example Function Stratified squamous Stratified cuboidal Stratified squamous epithelium may be keratinized (cornified) or nonkeratinized. Question: Describe the structural and functional differences between keratinized and non-keratinized epithelium. 4. Transitional epithelium (virtual slide of primate urinary bladder) Transitional epithelium is only found in a few places in tissues subject to periodical stretch/relaxation, as for example in the urinary tract. It may be stratified or

pseudostratified, Note that the cell shape in the luminal region is different when the bladder is stretched compared to when it is relaxed. Question: Describe the difference between the relaxed and the stretched state? The cell cytoplasm has vacuoles when relaxed which disappear when stretched. 16 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 2: TOPIC A: Glandular Epithelia General Objective: To recognise exocrine and endocrine glandular epithelium. Specific Objectives 1. To know the morphological characteristics of mucous and serous secretory cells 2. To identify the following types of exocrine glands: unicellular (Goblet cell), secretory sheet, simple tubular (straight and coiled), simple and branched alveolar (acinar) glands, compound tubular and tubulo-alveolar (tubulo-acinar) glands. 3. To recognise the different arrangement of endocrine glands when compared to exocrine glands. Learning Activities The arrangement of the gland cells and the presence or absence of branched ducts. Examine the

following virtual slides, identify draw and label the following types of glands. Virtual Slides Gland type Features Soft palate, dog Unicellular on nasal surface Goblet cells Drawing Mucous secreting glands and ducts Stomach body, primate Secretory sheet Mucous producing epithelial cells in all surface cells 17 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Gland type Features Small intestine (jejunum), primate Simple tubular Straight, no branching duct Skin (thick, palm), human Simple coiled tubular Sweat gland Stomach (pylorus), primate Simple branched Branched tubules Skin (thin, scalp), human Simple branched Compare duct (darker) with secretory (lighter) part tubular Sebaceous glands Alveolar Simple coiled tubular Skin (thin, axillary), human Drawing Apocrine sweat glands Sweat glands Myoepithelial cells Question: What epithelium lines the duct of sweat glands? 18 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Gland type Features Salivary gland

(submandibular), human Compound tubulo-acinar Serous acini Drawing Mucous acini Serous demilunes Interlobular ducts Striated ducts or / Intralobular ducts Intercalated ducts Pancreas, human Compound acinar Serous acinar Zymogen granules Centro-acinar cells Pancreas, human Endocrine Islets of Langerhans paler staining "islands" with a rich capillary network Question: Describe the structural differences between exocrine and endocrine glands and how it affects their mode of secretion. 19 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 2: TOPIC B: Connective Tissue I: Components General Objective To recognise various components of connective tissue and understand their functions. Specific Objectives 1. To understand the structure and functions of the cell types found in connective tissues: fibroblasts and fibrocytes, macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, lymphocytes. 2. To understand the connective tissue fiber constitution and function of reticular, elastic, areolar or

loose fibrous tissue and dense fibrous tissue. 3. To recognise the different types of general connective tissue, loose, dense irregular, dense regular. 4. To understand the origin of tissue fluid and intercellular ground substance Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides and identify, draw & label features and note their function. Virtual Slides Tissue Features Mesentery, rat and Liver (phagocytosis), rat Loose connective Elastic fibres (branching) Function Drawing Collagen Fibroblasts Macrophages (slide of liver, rat) Mast cells Mesenchymal cells Stomach (pylorus), primate and Loose connective: Salivary gland (submandibular), human e.g lamina propria Fibroblasts Lymphocytes Plasma cells with eccentric nuclei in salivary gland 20 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Features Liver, rabbit and Lymph node, cat Reticular connective tissue Reticular fibers (black) Function Drawing Collagen (stained blue) Reticular fibers in the

cat lymph node Neurovascular bundle, primate Elastic fibers In artery wall. Crenated & fenestrated Skin (thick, palm), human Dense irregular Collagen bundles Adipose tissue Delicate elastic fibres Fibroblasts Tendon, cat Dense regular connective tissue Collagen bundles Fibrocytes 21 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 3: TOPIC A: Connective Tissue II: Types Specific Objectives 1. To recognise the histological appearance of mesenchymal and mucoid connective tissue, and revise loose and dense fibrous connective tissue. 2. To recognise adipose tissue (white and brown fat) and understand its functions 3. To recognise the histological appearance of the different forms of cartilage: hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage. 4. To understand the role of the perichondrium in the formation of cartilage, and the mechanisms of appositional and interstitial growth. Examine the following virtual slides. Identify, draw and label the main features and note their function. Virtual Slides

Tissue Features Neonatal head, rat Mesenchyme Undifferentiated cells Subscapular region, rat, Peripheral nerve, cat Adipose Function Drawing Fine collagen fibers White, unilocular Brown, multilocular (Note difference in appearance of cytoplasm, size of cells & position of nuclei) Trachea, human Hyaline cartilage Chondroblasts Chondrocytes Lacunae Cell nests (isogenic groups) Matrix (territorial & interterritorial) Perichondrium (fibrous and cellular) 22 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Features Epiglottis, dog & Ear, human Elastic cartilage in ear pinna Elastic fibres Function Drawing Chondrocytes Lacunae Cell nests Perichondrium Adipose Vertebrae, cat Fibrocartilage in Chondrocytes IV disc (vertebrae) Cartilage matrix Fibroblasts Collagen Question: How does articular cartilage differ from normal hyaline cartilage? 23 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 3: TOPIC B: Bone, Bone Formation and Joints General Objective

To recognise bone and understand its structure and understand the processes by which bone can be formed. To know the structure of a synovial joint and a symphysis joint (intervertebral disc). Specific Objectives 1. To know the architecture of compact and spongy (cancellous) bone, the structure of the Haversian system (osteon), the importance and position of Haversian and Volkmann’s canals, interstitial systems. 2. To understand the arrangement of compact and spongy bone in a long bone 3. To differentiate between osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts and understand their roles in bone formation. 4. To identify and describe the processes of intramembranous and endochondral bone formation 5. To identify the components of a symphysis joint (intervertebral disc) 6. To identify the components of a synovial joint Learning Activities Examine in the following virtual slides. Identify, draw & label the following structures and note their function. Virtual Slides Tissue Features Bone

(ground, TS), adult human Compact bone Haversian systems (osteons) Function Drawing Concentric lamellae Interstitial lamellae Bone (ground, LS), adult human Circumferential lamellae Osteocytes Bone (TS, femur), adult Radial canaliculi Periosteum Endosteum Volkmann’s canals Haversian canals 24 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Features Neonatal rat head Intramembranous ossification Osteoblasts Function Drawing Osteocytes Osteoclasts Trabeculae Blood vessels Femur, (developing) Endochondral ossification cat and Zone of reserve cartilage Zone of proliferation neonatal tail, rat Zone of maturation and hypertrophy Zone of calcification and cell death Periosteal collar Periosteum and perichondrium Note also the nucleus pulposus and the formation of intervertebral ligaments between the ends of adjacent tail vertebrae. Femur (developing) cat Developing long bone Diaphysis Epiphysis Zones of metaphysis (Endochondral ossification) Hyaline

cartilage Articular cartilage Examine perforating blood vessels in cartilage undergoing ossification and the absence of capillaries in hyaline and articular cartilage. 25 Source: http://www.doksinet JOINTS Examine in the following virtual slides. Identify, draw & label the following structures and note their function. Virtual Slides Tissue Features Vertebrae, cat Symphysis joint Nucleus pulposus Function Drawing (developing) Anulus fibrosus Intervertebral disc Knee joint, kitten Hyaline cartilage Bone of vertebrae Cancellous (spongy) bone Synovial joint Patella (unossified) (Knee joint) Articular cartilage Synovial cavity Synovial membrane Articular capsule Cruciate ligaments Note: Observe adipose tissue associated with the lamina propria of the synovial membranes. Question: What is the difference between periosteum and endosteum? Question: What is the function of adipose tissue in and around a joint? Question: What is (are) the major difference(s)

between bone and cartilage? 26 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 4: TOPIC A: Blood and Blood Formation General Objective To know the formed elements of human blood and to appreciate that blood could be regarded as a “tissue” in which plasma constitutes the intercelluar substance. Specific Objectives 1. To differentiate blood cells on the basis of morphology and staining properties 2. To understand the principles of blood formation and the tissues and cells involved Note the following tables:Leucocytes in peripheral blood (Australian data) Cell type Numbers Diameter Neutrophils 40 - 75% 10 - 12µm Lymphocytes 10 - 45% 7-8 & 12 µm (small & large) Monocytes 2 - 10 % 10 - 15 µm Eosinophils 1-6% 10 - 15 µm Basophils <1% 10 - 15 µm Leucocyte distribution (steady state) 38% undergoing maturation at site of formation 57% outside blood vessels e.g in connective tissue, spleen etc. 5% in circulating blood Note that the Leucocyte: Erythrocyte ratio is

about 1:1000 (normally) Learning activities Examine the virtual slides in the following table, identify draw and label the different blood cell types. Note whether the leucocytes or white blood cells (WBC) are granular or not. For each WBC, carefully note the shape of the nucleus, the relative amount of cytoplasm compared to the size of the nucleus, and the relative size of each cell type compared to erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC). 27 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slide Cell type Blood smear, and (buffy coat), human Erythrocytes Granules Drawing Neutrophils Lymphocytes Monocytes Eosinophils Basophils Platelets Note that RBC’s are normally found in blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries). White blood cells are most often found outside blood vessels. Virtual Slides Cell Types Stomach (pylorus), primate Lymphocytes Function Drawing Tissue eosinophil Femur (developing), cat and Femur (adult), cat Blood vessels Fat droplets Sinusoids RBC

Megakaryocytes Head (neonatal rat) Red blood cells with nuclei Chronic gastric ulcer Good for tissue eosinophils Question: Which tissues have very large numbers of white blood cells and why? 28 Source: http://www.doksinet Question: Which is the most common type (s) of white blood cell (s) found in tissues? Why? Question: What is the function of various blood cells? 29 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 4: TOPIC B: Muscle General Objective To know the structure and ultrastructure of the three main types of muscle and how it relates to their varied functions. Specific Objectives 1. To identify striated skeletal (striated), cardiac and smooth muscle on the basis of histological features. 2. To distinguish connective tissue in association with muscle cells and fascicles of muscle cells. 3. To describe the ultrastructural features of the different types of muscle cells Learning Activities Examine electron micrographs of skeletal muscle in longitudinal section (LS) and identify the

following features: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. A band (dark staining; anisotropic) I band (light staining; isotropic) H band (pale zone in centre of A band) M line in centre of H band Z discs (in centre of I band) delineating the sarcomere Sarcoplasmic reticulum T tubules (transverse tubular system) and triads. Question: What is the significance of the various bands? Draw a model of striated skeletal muscle showing how the filaments are arranged in a sarcomere and label the various bands. Show how these change when the muscle contracts. Question: What are thin filaments and thick filaments composed of? View the electron micrographs showing striated muscle in longitudinal section. Each myofibril has a regular spaced arrangement of thick and thin filaments. Skeletal muscles are composed of a mixture of fast and slow fibres. Fast, or white, fibres give very rapid and very powerful muscle contractions for short periods (sprinting). Slow, or red, fibres give prolonged, continuous muscle

activity (marathons!). The proportion varies from muscle to muscle and from person to person for the same muscle. 30 Source: http://www.doksinet Now examine the following virtual slides and identify the features: Virtual Slides Tissue Features Tongue, rabbit and Tongue, primate and Toad Striated muscle A band LS & TS I band Drawing Endomysium Perimysium Nuclei Small intestine, primate, & Gallbladder, human, & Neurovascular bundle, primate Smooth muscle. Spindle-shaped cells LS & XS Nuclei (some show a corkscrew contraction) Endomysium Collagen fibres Oesophagus, human LS & TS Smooth muscle (middle third) Striated muscle Left ventricle, human & IV septum, sheep, & Cardiac muscle, rat Cardiac muscle. Nuclei position LS & XS Striations Intercalated discs Purkinje fibres Branching fibres Capillaries Question: What are Purkinje fibres and what is their function? 31 Source: http://www.doksinet Examine electron micrographs of

cardiac and smooth muscle. Compare and contrast the ultrastructure of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle Features Drawing 32 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 5: TOPICS A and B: Nervous Tissue (PNS & CNS) General Objective: To understand the main histological features of the peripheral and central parts of the nervous system (PNS and CNS). Specific Objectives 1. To know the histological features of peripheral nerves in cross, oblique and longitudinal section. 2. To identify peripheral nerves in routinely stained sections of various organs 3. To know the structure of muscle spindles, Pacinian and Meissner’s corpuscles 4. To know the ultrastructure of a CNS synapse and the morphology of the neuromuscular junction. 5. To distinguish between the components and location of grey and white matter, using the spinal cord and cerebellum as examples. 6. To describe the parts of the neurone: perikaryon (soma), dendrites, axon, axon

hillock, and dendritic spines. 7. To identify large multipolar neurones in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, Purkinje neurones in cortex of cerebellum, multipolar neurones in peripheral autonomic ganglia and pseudounipolar neurones in sensory ganglia. 8. To know the basic histological features of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia and ependymal cells. 9. To identify the nucleus of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides and draw and label the features listed and state their function(s): Peripheral nerves: Virtual Slides Tissue Features Peripheral nerve, cat, & Peripheral nerve, rat & Sciatic nerve, cat Peripheral nerve XS & LS Fascicles Epineurium Note: not all features are shown in each slide Function and Drawing Perineurium Endoneurium Vasa nervorum Collagen & fat Myelinated & Unmyelinated fibres Neurokeratin Schwann cells Nodes of Ranvier 33 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue

Features Gallbladder, Nerve bundles human & Small intestine, primate Function and Drawing Fascicles between muscle fibres and Auerbach’s plexus(myenteric) Nerve endings Virtual Slides Tissue Features Subscapular muscle, rat Muscle Spindle Intrafusal fibres Function Drawing Extrafusal fibres Capsule Nerve Skin, human Thick skin (palm) Pacinian corpuscle Meissner’s corpuscle A slide of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) will be demonstrated. Peripheral ganglia: Virtual Slides Tissue Features Trigeminal ganglion, cat Sensory Pseudounipolar somata Nuclei (central) Trigeminal ganglion Function and Drawing Satellite cells Axons Axon hillock Neurokeratin Sympathetic ganglion, human Autonomic Multipolar cell ganglion Nuclei (eccentric) Lipofuscin pigment Satellite cells WEEK 5: TOPIC B: Central Nervous Tissue Examine the following virtual slides and draw and label the features listed and state their function(s): 34 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual

Slides Tissue Features Spinal cord, ox and Spinal cord, cat Spinal cord (XS) Grey and white matter Function and Drawing Ventral & dorsal horns Central canal lined by ependymal cells Pia mater Arachnoid mater Subarachnoid space with dorsal and ventral rootlets and blood vessels Dura mater Motor neurones Nucleus and nucleolus Nissl granules Axon hillock Axons, dendrites Astrocytes Cerebellum, cat Cerebellum Oligodendrocytes Following layers: Molecular Purkinje Granular Brainstem portion of the cerebellum Cerebrum, human Cerebrum Pia and Arachnoid Choroid plexus & fourth ventricle Grey & white matter Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes Blood vessels Question: What are astrocytes and oligodendrocytes and where will you find them? Question: What is the function of an astrocyte and an oligodendrocyte? Question: How does the arrangement of grey and white matter differ in the spinal cord and brainstem? Examine the electron micrographs and identify the following features: 1.

Peripheral nervous system: Myelinated axon, myelin, unmyelinated axon, Schwann cells, and synaptic vesicles. 2. Central nervous system: Synapses, synaptic vesicles, synaptic cleft 35 Source: http://www.doksinet SYSTEMS HISTOLOGY COMPONENT WEEK 6: TOPIC A: Cardiovascular System General Objective To know and recognise the histological structure of blood vessels and the heart and to relate vascular structure to function. Specific Objectives 1. To know the basic architecture of vascular structures 2. To identify the tunica intima, tunica media and tunica adventitia in arteries and veins. 3. To describe the types of capillaries and sinusoids and their light and electron microscopic features. 4. To know the histological features of the epicardium, myocardium and endocardium Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify, draw, label and give the functions of the following structures: Virtual Slide Tissue Structure Aorta (TS), human Wall of the aorta Tunica

intima Function Drawing Tunica media Elastic laminae Smooth muscle cells Collagen Tunica adventitia Vasa vasorum Adipose tissue Nervi vasorum Lymphatics (i.e thoracic duct) Question: What type of adipose tissue is found around the aorta? 36 Source: http://www.doksinet Question: Why does the aorta have so many elastic laminae? Virtual Tissue Structure Vena cava Tunica intima Function Diagram Slide Vena cava, human Tunica media Tunica adventitia Vasa vasorum Longitudinal smooth muscle Note: The intimal, medial and adventitial layers are present in veins but less clearly demarcated than in arteries. Question: Describe the differences in the distribution of smooth muscles fibres between the aorta and the vena cava and relate this to the function of these vessels. Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Neurovascular bundle, primate Muscular artery Tunicae (as above) Function Diagram Internal elastic lamina. External elastic lamina (more diffuse) 37 Source:

http://www.doksinet Question: Compare structurally, an elastic artery (e.g aorta) and a muscular artery and relate the structural differences to their function. Virtual Slides Tissue Structure / Function Gallbladder, human Arteries Compare the distribution of tunicae in these structures Arterioles Diagram Veins Venules Valves if present Lymphatics Aorta, human Capillaries Endothelium Liver (reticular fibers), primate Sinusoids Reticular fibres (liver slide) Question: Discuss how the structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries are related to their varying functions Virtual Tissue Structure / Function Heart Epicardium Diagram Slides Left ventricle, human and Cardiac muscle, rat Myocardium Endocardium Coronary vessels Trabeculae carnae Chordae tendinae Examine electron micrographs of the various types of capillaries. 38 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 6: TOPIC B: Respiratory System General Objective To know the histological components of

the conducting and respiratory portions of the respiratory system. Specific Objectives 1. To know the cytology of the nasal cavity and upper respiratory tract 2. To know the structure of the trachea and extrapulmonary bronchi 3. To know the microanatomy of the lung and histological features of intrapulmonary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles and respiratory bronchioles. 4. To know alveolar ducts and alveoli, and the ultrastructure of their walls Learning activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify, draw and label the following structures and note their function: Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Nasal cavity, primate Nasal cavity Respiratory & Function Diagram olfactory epithelium Basement membrane Olfactory nerves Olfactory glands (Bowman’s) Conchae (turbinates) Bone & cartilage Blood vessels Neonatal, rat Neonatal rat (LS) Venous sinuses Olfactory nerves Cribriform plate Soft palate, dog Soft palate Respiratory epithelium on one side with

Goblet cells Diffuse lymphatic nodules Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium on the other side. Question: Give the full classification of respiratory epithelium and how does it differ from olfactory epithelium? 39 Source: http://www.doksinet Question: What is the function of the conchae? Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Larynx, human Larynx Vestibular fold (false cord) Function Diagram Vocal fold (true cord) Vocal ligament Laryngeal ventricle (of Morgagni) Glands Thyroid & cricoid cartilages Vocalis muscle Epithelium types Trachea, human Trachea Epithelium Lamina propria Muco-serous glands Smooth muscle (trachealis) Blood vessels Hyaline cartilage 40 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Lung, cat Lung Intrapulmonary bronchus Function Diagram Bronchioles (Terminal and Respiratory) Hyaline cartilage plates Smooth muscle Muco-serous glands Alveolar duct Alveoli Pneumocytes Types I & II Blood vessels Dust

cells (alveolar macrophages) Examine electron micrographs of respiratory epithelium and lung. Identify pulmonary capillary endothelium; pneumocytes (types I and II); basal laminae. Examine scanning electron micrographs of trachea and lung. Question: What is the function of a dust cell? Is it sedentary or motile? 41 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 8: TOPIC A: Integumentary System (Skin) General Objective To know the structure and function of skin and its appendages (derivatives). Specific Objectives 1. To know the microscopic structure of the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis 2. To know the histological differences between hairy (thin) and glabrous (thick) skin 3. To know the formation and histology of skin appendages: eccrine and apocrine sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hairs, nails and specialised glands. 4. To know the histological features of Pacinian and Meissner corpuscles and free nerve endings. Learning activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify draw and

label the following structures and note their function Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Skin (palm), human Thick skin Epidermis containing keratinocytes Function Drawing Dermal papillae Epidermal pegs Dermis with collagen, elastic, fibers,fibroblasts,and lymphocytes Hypodermis with adipose Layers (strata) of epidermis E) Corneum D) Lucidum C) Granulosum B) Spinosum A) Basale Pacinian corpuscle Meissner’s corpuscle Sweat glands & ducts Question: What does the term ‘stratum germinativum’ refer to? 42 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Skin (scalp, LS & TS), human Thin (hairy) skin Hair follicles Function Drawing Hair Hair bulb Dermal papillae Hair shaft: Medulla & Cortex Erector pili muscle Eccrine sweat glands Sebaceous glands Skin (axillary), human Hairy thin Apocrine sweat glands Sebaceous glands Myoepithelial cells Eccrine sweat glands Hair follicles Question: What is the difference between the epithelium

of thick (glabrous) and thin (hairy) skin? 43 Source: http://www.doksinet Question: What are the structural and functional differences between apocrine and eccrine sweat glands? Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Lip, human Lip Skin surface Function Drawing Mucosal surface Red (vermilion) margin Orbicularis oris muscle Mucoserous glands Sebaceous & sweat glands Hair follicles Finger (neonatal, LS), human Digit Nail matrix Blood vessels Eponychium Nail bed Hyponychium Nail Bone & Bone Marrow Dermis & Epidermis Epidermal pegs 44 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 8: TOPIC B: Liver, Gallbladder and Pancreas General Objective To know the histological structure and major functions of the liver, gall bladder and pancreas. Specific Objectives 1. To know the histology of the liver, including the hepatic lobule, portal area, and histological features of the vascular and biliary systems. 2. To appreciate the 3-D arrangement of hepatocytes and know their

major functions 3. To know the histological features of the wall of the gallbladder 4. To know the histological features of the exocrine and endocrine pancreas Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify, draw and label the following features. Discuss and make a note of their function(s). Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Liver, pig, Liver Hepatic lobule Liver, human, Function Drawing Portal area (triad) Central vein Liver, primate, Sinusoids Liver (reticular fibers), primate Hepatocytes Liver (phagocytosis), rat Bile canaliculi and fat vacuoles in hepatocytes (in primate liver slide) Kupffer cells (in rat liver slide) Reticular fibres (in primate liver slide) Capsule (Glisson’s) (in human liver slide) Question: What is the major difference between the pig liver and the human liver? 45 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Gallbladder, human Gall Epithelium Function Drawing Bladder Lamina propria containing

blood vessels, collagen and fibroblasts Muscularis externa Lymphatics (vessels and nodules) Pancreas, human Exocrine Acini Centroacinar cells Ducts Connective tissue Blood vessels Zymogen granules Endocrine Islets of Langerhans (Alpha & Beta cells) Question: Construct a table giving the cells found in the Islets of Langerhans, what each secretes, and the function of each secretion. Question: What is diabetes? What are the different forms of diabetes? Examine electron micrographs and identify: bile canaliculi, hepatic sinusoids. 46 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 9: TOPIC A: Gastro-Intestinal System I General Objectives 1. To know the histological features and functions of the oral cavity and its associated structures. 2. To know the general organization of the alimentary tract and the histological features of its various anatomical subdivisions: oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine, large intestine, appendix and rectum. Specific Objectives 1. To know the

microanatomy of the tongue, including epithelial types, muscles, glands, papillae and taste buds. 2. To know the histological features of the submandibular gland 3. To know the general architecture of the wall of the alimentary tract and the functions of the mucosa, submucosa, muscle layer and serosal or adventitial layer in the various anatomical divisions of the canal. 4. To know the structure of the oesophagus, cardio-oesophageal junction and stomach wall. 5. To identify the cells of gastric epithelium and distinguish the histological features of the cardiac, body and pyloric regions of stomach. 6. To know the histological features of the duodenum and ileum, including villi, intestinal mucosal glands (crypts of Lieberkuhn), lymphatic tissue and intramural nerve plexuses. 7. To know the structure of the large intestine, appendix and rectum Learning activities: Mouth, oesophagus & stomach Note: The lip and soft palate have already been studied and will not be repeated here. You

are reminded however, that they are part of the oral structure. Examine the following virtual slides, identify, draw and label the following structures and note their function. Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Tongue, human, Tongue Papillae Tongue, rabbit and Tongue (filiform papillae), human Function Drawing Circumvallate Fungiform Foliate Filiform Taste buds Von Ebner’s glands Muscle fibres Nerves and blood vessels Question: What type of glands are von Ebner’s glands ? 47 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Tissue Structure Submandibular Serous acini Function Drawing Slides Salivary gland, human Mucous acini Serous demilunes Lobes Lobules CT Septa Ducts A) Intercalated B) Striated (Intralobular) C) Interlobular Blood vessels Question: What is the function of the glands? Question: Describe the epithelium found in the larger intralobular and interlobular salivary ducts. Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Oesophagus, human Oesophagus Epithelium (mid

region, TS & LS) Submucosa Function Drawing Muscularis mucosa Meissner’s plexus Muscularis externa Smooth muscle Striated muscle Auerbach’s plexus (myenteric) 48 Source: http://www.doksinet Oesophagus/ stomach, primate Cardio- C-O junction zone oesophageal Stomach epithelium junction Cardiac glands Muscle layers Nerve plexus Stomach, primate Body Secretory sheet Rugae Gastric Pits Mucous neck cells Parietal cells Chief cells Layers of wall Nerves Stomach, primate Pylorus Pyloric pits Pyloric glands Wall layers Nerves Lymphatic nodules Question: What is the difference in the muscle in the upper, middle and lower parts of the oesophagus? Question: Describe the cells which make up the secretory sheet of the stomach. 49 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 9: TOPIC B: Gastro-Intestinal System II Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Stomach / small intestine, primate Pyloroduodenal Pyloric glands Junction Function Drawing Gastric pits Villi Goblet cells

Crypts of Lieberkuhn Pyloric sphincter Brunner’s glands Muscle layers Lymphatic nodules Small intestine, primate and ileum (TS), cat Jejunum Epithelium Ileum Goblet cells Villi and microvilli Plicae circulares Lacteals Crypts of Lieberkuhn Peyer’s patches (ileum slide) Lymphatic tissue (Plasma cells, lymphocytes) Muscle layers Nerve plexi: 1) Meissner’s) 2) myenteric (Auerbach’s) 50 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Large intestine, human Large Goblet cells Intestine Crypts of Lieberkuhn Function Drawing Lymphatic tissue (aggregations) Taenia coli Myenteric (Auerbach’s) nerve plexus Muscularis mucosa Appendix, human Appendix Epithelium with goblet cells Lymphatic follicles marginal zones germinal centres Tunica serosa Recto-anal junction, human Recto-anal Submucosal folds Junction Epithelium (change of type) Muscularis mucosa Goblet cells Intestinal glands Lymphatic nodules Smooth muscle Blood vessels Hair follicles

Sebaceous glands Question: Compare the thickness of the stomach and duodenal walls. 51 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 10: TOPIC A: Lymphatic Tissue and the Immune System General Objective To know the structure and function of lymphoid tissues and organs. Specific Objectives 1. To know the two principal components of lymphatic tissue: reticular tissue (reticular cells, reticular fibres, macrophages) and lymphatic cells. 2. To recognise the different arrangements of lymphatic tissue in the different organs: diffuse and nodular (follicular) lymphatic tissue, lymph nodes, and tonsils. 3. To describe the structure of a lymph node and to identify cortex, medulla, trabeculae, medullary cords and sinusoidal system. 4. To know the significance of the paracortical zone of the node 5. To describe the microanatomy of the spleen, including red and white pulp, blood vessels of red and white pulp, splenic sinusoids and cells. 6. To describe the structure of the thymus gland and its

morphological changes during development. Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify, draw and label the features listed and note their function where appropriate: Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Lymph node, cat, Lymph node, human and Lymph node, cat Lymph Node Capsule Function Drawing Cortex Medulla Medullary sinuses Macrophages Cortical nodules Paracortical zone (dark staining below nodules) Trabeculae Lymphatics at hilus Reticular fibers (in cat lymph node virtual slide) 52 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Tonsil, human Palatine Epithelial lining Function Drawing Crypts Lymphocytes Nodules Germinal centre Marginal zone Spleen, human Spleen Capsule Trabeculae Trabecular blood vessels Red pulp White pulp Splenic nodules (Malpighian follicles) Central arteries Splenic sinusoids Lymphocytes Thymus (neonatal), human, Thymus gland Thymic lobule (Cortex & Medulla) Lymphocytes Thymus (juvenile), human

Hassal’s corpuscle Trabeculae (septae) Adipose tissue Thymus (adult), human 53 Source: http://www.doksinet Question: Where else do you find tonsils in the oral cavity? Question: What is the function of tonsils? Discuss the effects of removing the tonsils (a very common procedure not so long ago!) Question: What is happening to the thymus gland with increasing age? Is it still functional in the adult? Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Gallbladder, human and Gallbladder Diffuse lymphatic Function Drawing tissue Lymphatic vessels Small intestine (jejunum), primate Intestinal villi Lacteals Aorta (TS), human Thoracic duct Tunica intima Tunica media Tunica adventitia Task: List the major immune cells and their functions. 54 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 10: TOPIC B: Endocrine System General Objective To know the histological features and hormones of the endocrine glands. Specific Objectives 1. To know the structure of the thyroid and parathyroid glands and the

hormones secreted. 2. To know the histology of the adrenal cortex and medulla and the hormones secreted by each section. 3. To understand the close relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary 4. To know the parts of the hypophysis (pituitary) To identify chromophil (acidophil, basophil) and chromophobe cell types and the hormones associated with each group of cells. To describe the structure of the neurohypophysis and the process of neurosecretion. 5. To know the histology of pancreatic Islet cells and their hormonal secretions Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify draw and label the following structures. Note the hormone secreted by the various structures and their major function. Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Thyroid gland, human and Thyroid/parathyroid, primate Thyroid gland Capsule Function Drawing Follicles Follicular cells Colloid C cells (parafollicular cells) Thyroid/parathyroid, primate Parathyroid gland Chief cells Oxyphil

cells (reddish) Adrenal gland, primate and adrenal gland, human Adrenal gland Capsule Cortex Zona Glomerulosa Zona Fasciculata Zona Reticularis Sinusoids Medulla Blood vessels 55 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Pituitary gland, human and Pituitary gland, ox Hypophysis Adenohypophysis (Pars Distalis, anterior pituitary) (Pituitary gland) Function Drawing Acidophils-40% Basophils-10% Chromophobes-50% Pars Intermedia Colloid Sinusoids Neurohypophysis (Pars Nervosa, posterior pituitary) Pituicytes Herring bodies Pancreas, human Pancreas Islets of Langerhans (Pancreatic) Alpha cells Beta cells Task: With the help of a diagram summarise the effect of the hypothalamus / pituitary complex on the rest of the body i.e hormones secreted and their action on target organs and tissues. 56 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 11: TOPIC A: Urinary System General Objective To know the histology of the kidney, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra.

Specific Objectives 1. To describe the microanatomy of the kidney: cortex, medulla, and pelvis 2. To know the structure and ultrastructure of the nephron including the glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, proximal and distal tubules, loops of Henle. 3. To identify collecting tubules in the medulla 4. To know the vascular circulation in the kidney 5. To describe the structure of the ureter, urethra and urinary bladder and changes, which occur in the bladder during stretching. Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify, draw and label the features listed and note their function. Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Kidney (LS & TS), rat Kidney Capsule Function Drawing Cortex Medulla Kidney (LS), human and Kidney (vascular injection), cat Pelvis Ureter Hilus Glomerulus Capillaries Basement membrane Bowman’s capsule Urinary pole Vascular pole Macula densa PCT DCT Loop of Henle Collecting tubules Vasa rectae (in the virtual slide of cat kidney) 57 Source:

http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Ureter, human Ureter Epithelium Function Drawing Connective tissue Muscle layers Urinary bladder (distended/re laxed), primate Urinary Epithelium Bladder (Compare stretched versus relaxed) Smooth muscle (plexiform arrangement) CT & blood vessels Prostate gland, dog Prostatic Epithelium urethra Lumen Penis (neonatal, TS), human Penile Corpus cavernosum urethra Corpus spongiosum Mucous glands of Littre Paccinian corpuscle Peripheral nerves Hair follicle and sebaceous glands Question: Give the full name of the type of epithelium found in the urinary tract. Describe what happens to the epithelium when it is stretched (eg. as bladder fills) Examine electron micrographs of the glomerulus and identify podocytes and filtration slits. 58 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 11: TOPIC B: Female Reproductive System General Objective To know the histological structure of the major organs of the female reproductive

system. Specific Objectives 1. To describe the microanatomy of the ovary and to identify: peritoneal mesothelium, developing ovarian follicles, Graafian and atretic follicles. 2. To know the layers of the wall of the uterine tube (Fallopian tube or oviduct) 3. To know the structure of the uterus and the morphological changes of the endometrium during the menstrual cycle. 4. To know the structure of the mammary glands Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify draw and label the structures listed below and note the function. Virtual Slide Tissue Structure Ovary, cat Ovary Epithelium Function Drawing Tunica albuginea Cortex Medulla Cortical stroma Follicles primordial primary (pre-antral) secondary (antral) Graafian (mature) atretic Zona pellucida Antrum Cumulus oophorus Granulosa cells Corona radiata Theca interna Theca externa Oviduct (Fallopian tube) 59 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slide Tissue Structure Ovary, human Corpus luteum

Corpus luteum Function Drawing Granulosa lutein cells (secrete progesterone) Theca lutein cells (secrete estrogen) Corpus albicans Uterine tube, human Oviduct Epithelium (ampulla) Muscle Mesosalpinx (mesentery of uterine tube) Uterus, human Late proliferative endometrium Epithelium (endometrium) Endometrial glands Myometrium Blood vessels Connective tissue Uterus, human Epithelium Secretory endometrium Endometrial glands (Compare with late proliferative endometrium) Myometrium Helicine arteries (spiral) 60 Source: http://www.doksinet Question: Discuss the differences between late proliferative and secretory endometrium. Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Cervix (LS), human (2 slides) Cervix Cervical canal Function Drawing Transition of epithelium Nabothian (mucous) glands Vagina, human Vagina Epithelium Lack of glands Vascular tissue Smooth muscle Peripheral nerves Mammary gland, cat Lactating Interlobar septa Secretory alveoli Nipple Lactiferous ducts

Epithelium (nipple) CT Hair follicles Sebaceous glands Question: What tissue is taken in a “pap” smear and why are checks important? 61 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 12: TOPIC A: Male Reproductive System General Objective To know the histological structures of the major components of the male reproductive system. Specific Objectives 1. To describe the microanatomy of the testis and epididymis 2. To identify cells of the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubule: Sertoli cells, spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa. 3. To know the structure of the ductus deferens, seminal vesicle, prostate gland and penis. Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify, draw and label the following structures and note their function. Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Testis (epididymis), primate Testis Seminiferous tubules Function Drawing Basement membrane Leydig (interstitial) cells Testis (LS), cat Sertoli cells Testis, human

Spermatogonia Spermatocytes Spermatids Mediastinum Rete Testis Efferent tubules Epididymis Stereocilia Question: What are stereocilia and what is their function in the epididymis ? 62 Source: http://www.doksinet Virtual Slides Tissue Structure Vas deferens, human Vas Deferens Epithelium Function Drawing Lamina propria Muscle layers Adventitia Seminal vesicle, ox Seminal vesicle Epithelium Lamina propria Muscle layers Adventitia Prostate gland, dog and Prostate gland, primate Prostate Gland Capsule Prostatic urethra Epithelium Prostatic concretions Ejaculatory ducts Penis (neonatal, TS), human Penis Tunica albuginea Corpus cavernosum Corpus spongiosum Urethra Mucous glands of Littre Helicine arteries Nerve fascicles Pacinian corpuscles Dorsal blood vessels Hair follicles Sebaceous glands Sperm Smear Sperm, human Head, mid piece and tail 63 Source: http://www.doksinet WEEK 12: TOPIC B: Special Sense Organ: The Eye General Objective To know the main

structural features of the eye and their major functions. Specific Objectives 1. To know the microanatomy of the retina, and the structure of the cornea, iris, lens, and ciliary body. 2. To know the cellular structure of the eyelid Learning Activities Examine the following virtual slides, identify, draw and label the structures listed below and note their function. Tissue Structure Eye (anterior segment) Cornea Function Drawing Corneal epithelium (stratified squamous) Basement membrane (Bowman’s) Basement membrane (Descemet’s) Corneal endothelium (simple squamous) Corneal stroma Iris Sphincter pupillae m. Iridial epithelium (pigmented) Iridial stroma Canal of Schlemm Lens fibres (inside the lens) Lens capsule Zonule ligaments attach to lens Ciliary body 64 Source: http://www.doksinet Question: What causes opaqueness in the lens (cataracts)? Tissue Structure Eye (posterior segment) Sclera Function Drawing Melanocytes Ora serrata (junction of retina with ciliary

body, area where rods and cones disappear) Retina Basement membrane (Bruch’s) Pigment epithelium Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones Outer nuclear layer Outer plexiform Inner nuclear layer Inner plexiform Ganglion cell layer Retinal blood vessels Nerve fibre layer Optic nerve Fovea centralis Neonatal head Developing eye Eyelid still closed Cornea Lens Retina Eyelid Conjunctiva with Goblet cells Skin surface (strat. squamous) Orbicularis oculi skeletal muscle. Eyelashes Tarsus plate Tarsal (Meibomian) gland Apocrine sweat glands (Moll) Sebaceous glands (Zeis) Question: Describe the different types of photoreceptors and the function of each type. 65