Nyelvtanulás | Angol » Angol szigorlati tételek

1. A tétel Commercial Treaties Both the English and Hungarians use synonymously the terms: treaty, pact, protocol, agreement, contract A treaty is a formal agreement between countries on important and comprehensive matters affecting all of them. A pact is a solemn agreement, as for example a peace pact. A convection is usually an agreement which is either less formal or more specific than a treaty, for example the Geneva convention about the treatment of prisoners of war. Protocol is a specific term, usually an agreement between countries and signed by their representatives. Agreement is the most general term referring to a spoken or written understanding between parties (people, groups, companies or parties). An accord is an agreement between countries or businesses. A contract is an agreement between two or more persons or companies on a specific deal. Agreements between two countries are called bilateral, between several countries multilateral, agreements. Commercial treaties are

general character what define long term economic connections; barter agreement is more specific and covers a shorter period of time. Commercial treaties can grant a general status in commercial, industrial and financial matters. 1. National treatment: This confers exactly the same rights on nationals of foreign country as the country’s own national possess. 2. Reciprocal treatment grants to nationals of country B treatment not less favourable than that received in country B by nationals of country A. 3. The most-favoured nation treatment ensures that the parties concerned extend to each other in the future the same treatment as they extend to the most favoured nation they are dealing with. 1.B tétel The place where you live, living conditions, housing First I will describe the place where I live, and after that the living conditions and housing. So I live in a small city named Somorja, near to the capital city, about 25 km from it. The population is about 13.000 I think this

city can be divided into two parts The first is the centre, where a lot of shops, banks, and flats can be founded and it is quite noisy. The second part where I live is as nice as a small village. We can see trees, parks, and family houses Here almost everyone has a dog or a cat and another animals. As I mention I live in a family house It has two floors, 5 rooms, 2 bathrooms a kitchen, a poultry and a cellar. There is a one big bedroom, a living room, 2 children rooms and on the floor there is also a big bedroom with a living room and a bathroom. We have a quite big court, a garden and a garage I think this is all of our houses, let’s see the other parts. A many Slovak families don’t own their houses and flats in which they live. In order to buy a house a family in Slovakia need all money, but in this republic is one special bank (VUB), from which it is possible to borrow up to 60 % of the value of the house and two building savings-banks. (VUB WUSTENROD, PSS) Of course, not

everyone wishes to buy a house and renting is very common, too. There are several types of houses in Slovakia. At first - a terraced houses are build in a row and are joined one to another to form a street. At second - cottages are a small village house. At third - bungalows are a one-storey house. And almost half of all Slovak families live in houses not in a flat. A flat is situated on one floor and is designed for one family. It may be very large with nearly as much space as the house, or it may also be one or many rooms with kitchen and bathroom. In the centre of big Slovakia cities many people live in apartments situated in large apartment buildings. They usually rent apartments which are owned by big companies or private owners These houses are well furnished and equipped with modern house-hold appliances. There are usually one or more phones and TV sets, stereo and video systems, a microwave and the fridge-freezer in these apartments. Today era bring us many problems. Housing is

one of that Thanks our government young people, who want to found family, cant live. I think, this situation is very horrible There is problem of style of living. We have problems with parks and green generally Many people have dog or cat so green is covered by theirs wastes and small children plays there games. There is problem of playgrounds too. There are a lot of flats in our area, but only two playgrounds. This problem is connected with rising of criminality Children cant make sport, because there isnt place for theirs activity. So, they make group and they wander around estate. There is a problem also with cars, because there are only a few parking places So, I describe my ideal house. Around my house must be a garden with playground and under the house must be garage. My flat will have 5 rooms, 1 big kitchen and big bathroom with accessories. If I have 2 children, I will have 2 children room - for everybodys own I want my own workroom. I want flat with many lights and windows I

like plants so in every room must be least one plant. Estate must be situated near some bus or tram station - 2.A tétel Government control of foreign trade The Means of Controlling Foreign Trade The government can control foreign trade activities in different ways. It can encourage exports and control imports. The commercial policy of a country is always closely connected with its foreign policy. This is reflected not only by various restrictions, for example establishing quotas, raising taxes and introducing license systems. The government can control foreign trade activities directly or indirectly. Administrative measures control these activities directly, foreign exchange regulations indirectly. The government can also subsidize prices, which means that it allows goods to be sold at a price lower than the market price. The aim is to prevent the decline of a company or industry. Customs The tariff policy of a country usually protects the interest of the home economy by

enabling its products to penetrate foreign markets while protecting its own markets from being flooded by foreign goods. Import tariffs are therefore kept as high as possible and export tariffs very low, if applicable at all. Besides import and export duties, there are transit duties A transit duty is a tax levied on goods passing through a customs area. Tariffs are often classified as either protective or revenue. Protective tariffs are designed to shield domestic production; revenue tariffs are designed to obtain revenue for the government. Tariffs are imposed according to the weight of goods, or according to their quantity and quality. The customs tariff of a country is either a double-column tariff or a single-column tariff. A single column tariff is used when the rates are valid in all countries. When different rates are used, a double column tariff is used 2.B tétel Family. Generation gap I think, we have standard Czech family. I have mother, father and brother Mother is 44

years old and she takes care about grandmother. Father is 49 years old and he works as technologist in Chemopetrol. My brother is 15 years old and he studies Elementary school He likes techniques and he wants study Technical school. I said, that mother takes care about grandmother, so fifth member of our family is grandmother. She is 70 years old Generation Gap The relationships between the old and the young generation are the objects of many discussions. The older say that the young people have no sense of responsibility today They often criticize the way how the young people dress and behave. On the other hand many young people think that the older cant understand them and that they themselves must be absolutely different than their parents. It obviously necessary that there should be more understanding on both sides. The older should remeber how they used to be when they were young The young should remember that the older have bigger life experiences and that one day they will be in

the same situation. The young have their own world of fashion They often need more money for a new style of jeans, their favourite music Cds, magazines, discotheques, They dont realize the value of money they ask from their parents. I am a teenager too As many others in my age I have many arguements with my parents too. I respect my parents, but on the other hand I realize I have different opinions of many everyday problems. Which problems do I mean? The parents should realize that I am not a child anymore. I have grown up I have different hobbies from those I used to have when I was under ten. I love my parents, but I want them to know that I am different. When we have problems it doesnt mean that we dont like each other. I prefer talking about my problems and I am always ready to explain my parents my opinions or my different views for some situations. Discussion in each family is very important. I am very thankfull for my great parents They take always their free time to discuss

with me almost everything. And I am sure that if both sides will tolerate each other more the problem of generation gap between two generations will be always smaller. 3. A tétel International Finance Foreign Exchange Centuries ago gold or silver coins were used as money. The value of each nation’s money was determined by the gold (or silver) content of each coin. Today, each country ha its own currency, with names such as forint, dollar, pound, ruble, etc. A distinction is made between domestic currency and foreign currency. Also between foreign currency and foreign exchange Foreign exchange means the system of dealing in and converting the currency into that of another. Currencies can be free or convertible (hard currencies), transferable currencies which can be transferred from one bank to another, and closed currencies (soft currencies), which can only be used by special arrangement. The price at which one currency can be exchanged for another is called the exchange rate.

Under a floating exchange rate the rates of exchange are determined by market trading, based on the supply of and demand for specific currencies. Under a fixed exchange rate the government keeps the price fixed. Some countries ably a non-commercial exchange rate (e.g tourism) and a commercial exchange rate for exports and imports. This was the practice in Hungary Since 1981 the National Bank of Hungary has published the exchange rates of convertible currencies once a week 4. B tétel Travelling Every day hundreds of people travel from one place to another. They travel to work, to school, or on business. Many people travel for pleasure and traveling has recently become one of the most popular hobbies. Traveling is also an interesting way of spending holidays In every season of the year the airports, railway stations, seaports, and bus stops are full of people traveling for long or short distances. When people travel a long distance they usually travel by air. Traveling by air is

exciting, fast comfortable, relatively safe but rather expensive. In the 20th century it became one of the most important means of transport. It takes nearly 6 hours by plane to get from the western to the eastern coast of the U.SA There are several American Airlines, all of them private. They include the most popular and biggest airline companies such as the Pan American, Delta. When people choose to travel by plane they usually go or phone to the airlines or travel agency to get information about flights. At the airport the passengers travelling with international or intercontinental airlines have to show their flight tickets and passports. An official weight their luggage can take only 20 kg. The passengers must also go through the customs. Then the passengers can go to the waiting room In the plane the stewardess shows them their seats. Before the aircraft moves, the notices flash up „Fasten Your Safety Belts” and „No Smoking”. During the flight the stewardess offers the

passengers some meals, drinks, cigarettes and sweets. The passengers can also read magazines Traveling by train is the most common form of travelling. In our country trains are used daily by many people to and from work or school. They are cheap, less polluting, safe but not very clean and comfortable. Fast trains are more comfortable for longer distances They do not stop at every station. There are also a sleeping car and the dinning car in fast trains. Coaches are buses for long distance travelling. They are fast, comfortable and the prices of tickets are quit reasonable. During holidays the travel agencies offer many coach trips to the mountains or seaside resorts. Many people sat, that car is the most comfortable mean of travelling and seeing places. Others think it is just a necessity because it is quicker than public transport. But for many people motoring is a pleasure. They enjoy driving a car at a high speed and do not think of the dangers of fast driving. The cars are

comfortable and quick, but they are not safe and are rather expensive. In spite of that the number of cars on our roads and highways grows higher and higher every year. The growing number of cars is a danger not only for people but also for environment of the country. Many young people of all countries of the world like travelling by bike. Some go to school by bike; others prefer cycling as a sport or a hobby. In recent years many young people go for holiday trips by bike which is healthy and exciting. This type of travelling depend much on weather and therefore summer is the best season for cycling tours 5. A tétel Marketing and advertising, trade fairs and exhibition Marketing an Advertising The most important function of marketing is to buy at as low a price as possible and sell at a price high enough to ensure a good profit. In order to achieve that, research is carried out to provide information on the size of the market and the price for which product or service can be sold

or bought. Marketing is concerned with packaging, promoting and distributing the product and also deals with after-sales service. The aim of advertising is to inform the public of the advantages of a product or service (what can be obtained, and where, for how much, etc.) Advertising dates back to ancient times In the Middle Ages street vendors cried the names of the goods they wanted to sell. In the 12th century in France the criers went through the streets giving samples of their drink. Printed advertising came later. Outdoor advertising became popular in England Posters appeared on every wall. Today, the most important advertising media are: newspapers, magazines, radio and television commercials, outdoor advertising and direct mail advertising. It is important for a company to maintain good public relations. By public relations we mean the relations between a company and the general public. These relations must be kept friendly in various ways. Public relations are big business

today One important aspect of communication is advertising. It is the means by which we make known what we have to sell or buy. Without advertising a mass-production system could not function. There are two kinds of advertising, informative and persuasive advertising The latter does not just inform, it uses subtle techniques to persuade and delude the public into buying. Selling goods can rarely be done by the product itself or by price alone Continuous publicity is needed to support the sales efforts and to make known the full range of products. A successful sales campaign depends upon four main fundamentals They are: a good product at a competitive price a sound market policy reliable representatives close personal attention to the market Whether it is consumer or capital goods that are subject of the campaign the main ways in which it can be executed are: paid advertising editorial publicity literature describing the products display materials trade fairs and exhibitions A

distinction is made between trade fairs and exhibitions. Trade fairs are markets, and usually feature the products of one or more industries. They may be visited only by business people. Sales are made on the basis of samples No goods are sold directly at stands. Exhibitions, on the other hand, are meant also for the general public 1 2 5. B, 14 B tétel Free time, entertainment, sports and games The communication media/press, broadcasting and TV are among the most influential in the world. NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES A high number of readers supports development of newspaper industry. There are a lot of papers in the world. The most prestigious are The Times of London, The Guardian (in Great Britain), the largest daily newspapers published in the U.SA are The New York Times and The Washington Post. In our country are the most favourite The New Time, The Slovak Republic and many others. The main section of the paper contains the most important news. There are separate sections

for home news and for international news. In some the sports news and the business news are also in the main section. The contents of the often sections change from day to day They usually include feature articles on the arts and reviews. Each days paper has articles about particular topics. Many people also read local newspaper Some people (especially older people) like local newspapers more than national ones because they often know some of the people mentioned in the articles. Although local newspapers usually concentrate on local news, the most important national and international events are also reported. The habit of reading the paper is an important part of many peoples daily lives, although a lot of people dont have time to read it from cover to cover. TELEVISION The first television transmissions were made in England in 1926 by the Scotman John Logie Baird. The great progress was only after the war It was partly due to the war itself, which greatly developed peoples knowledge

of electronics. Television soon appeared in the home and came to occupy an important place there. A large number of people are concerned with television every day - technicians, cameramen, programmers and of course artists. Thus television plays an important role in our society. This role is sometimes positive, but it can also at time be unhealthy. Through television we receive images from all parts of the world and our knowledge is better. But not all of televisions effects are beneficial Whereas people spent the evenings working or studying, many now spend a large part of evening watching TV programmes. Many people say that watching TV is a waste of time Some adults also say that TV watching is bad for kids. There are a lot of especially foreign films on TV, which are about men who are killing each other for money. I never understand these films but if you look around you that is what you see. People are very violent and also children are aggressive The killer becomes their heroes.

Maybe they like watching TV and videos where men kills men. Also even cartoons are full of violence Just try to watching the famous Ninja Turtles or Tom and Jerry. These cartoons are supposed to be for children Is it normal? Internet Internet is one of the most expanding things in the present. And after the other seven worlds wonders it’s my eighth wonder. Why? Today it is the fastest way of sending and receiving a lot of information. For example you can buy much things – from computers, cars, books . to simple pizza You can also communicate with your friends and family from all parts of the world. It isn’t a problem to know the latest news about your American cousin. E-mail provides you easy way to connect with him. Ten or twenty seconds – and your messages are from Slovakia in United States of America. Or do you want information about Indian climate or weather forecast for next hour? Nothing is simplest. One click in program or one telephone by FreeTel (of course, it’s by

Internet). And you know the answer 1 Sports The best way, how people can keep theirselves in good condition, look healthy, feel very good, have enough energy to work or study, is to practice some sports and games. Sport is also certain symbol of peace and friendship among people of all countries and nations. The Olympic games are some holiday of peace".Sport gives people enjoyment, happiness, friendship, health, popularity, the feeling of victory, possible money and power, but on the other hand it may also be boring, cause sadness, sorrow, injuries and, in some causes even death. 2 6. B tétel International trade The history of trade is largely the history of civilisation. First it was what we call barter, a simple exchange of goods. Goods like cloth and glass beads were taken to places and exchanged for things like oriental spices. Sometimes this was a dangerous and risky business. Today trade is not confined to visible exports and imports of goods but also includes

invisible items, like services, transportation, insurance, expenditure by tourists, etc. The balance of trade indicates the difference between imports and exports of visible items. The balance of payments also includes invisible items If the total value of the goods imported is higher that of the goods exported, the balance of trade is bad, it shows a deficit, other wise the balance of trade is good, it shows a surplus. What a country can achieve in international trade is shown by the terms of trade. Terms are good, when the prices of its exports are high in relations to the prices of its imports and bad when the reverse is the case. The terms of trade become even more favourable if the demand for a country’s exports increase, or if the demand for its imports decrease. Then its import prices will fall and its export prices will rise. 6. A tétel Retail trade Retail trade is a part of commerce, where goods are sold to the final consumer. The retailer performs a number of

important functions: - He buys in large quantities and cut up into small quantities. - Stocks: hold stocks which the consumer can purchase locally in small, convenient quantity. - Choice: the consumer is able to choose from the variety of products of different producers offered by retailer. - Information and advice: the retailer’s expert knowledge enables them to advise and inform customers on quality and suitability of products. - Feedback: he provides a feedback of consumer responses to wholesalers and producers. Types of retailer: 1.) Door to door: traders involved in this form of selling generally deal in sales of minor items of goods and services. - Pedlars: carry goods from door to door on foot. - Hawkers: use some method of transport - Mobile shops: a vehicle adapted to serve as a travelling shop. 2.) Market traders: they usually sell their goods in small houses, in stalls in open areas, sometimes in street. They are often able to keep prices low, because they avoid overheads

eg heating, high rent, shop fitting. 3.) Independent shops (sole traders): is owned by a sole trader or small partnership, and is typically sited away from town centres. It often specialises in offering a single commodity or service. (barker, butcher) Its advantages are: - saves customers for need to travel into town - sometimes allows customers credit Disadvantages: - Can’t buy in very large quantities - prices often higher than in larger shops - difficulties in running shop if the owner is sick 4.) Multiples: (Chain sores): are chains of shops trading under a single name of common ownership. They are generally controlled from central headquarters and often be sited in town centres and shopping centres. It enjoys many advantages over smaller retailers: - their large size enables them to by-pass wholesalers and buys in large quantities from the producer. - they have the resources to rent or buy stores in the centre of the city, with large car parking space. - they can afford to

attract customers with ‘loss leaders’ (goods sold at below cost price) 5.) Self-service stores and supermarkets: It is a supermarket when it has more than 2000 square feet of shopping area and 3 or more check-out points. Advantages: - These shops deal particularly in pre-packed, price-labelled products. - Loss-leaders are frequently used to attract customers - Customers serve themselves - Shopping trolleys helps the customers’ - impulse buying (unplanned purchase) 1 Disadvantages: - pilferage (stealing) levels are high - customers receive little personal contact - shopping trolleys are stolen Loss leaders: Usually the supermarkets pursue this policy, which means: cutting the price of some popular article very much below the market price in order to attract customers to the shop. 6.) Department stores – „shop of shops” It is divided into commodity departments. Each department is operated like a single shop and has its own profit. Advantages: - customers can do the

shopping in comfort - wide variety of goods available under on roof - shop assistants give personal service - sited in towns Disadvantages: - large central sites are expensive - can’t compete with prices of multiples - comfort surrounding costs a lot of money 7.) Hypermarkets: They are a very large form of supermarket with a shopping area in excess of 50000 square feet. They offer a very wide range of goods in many specialist departments similar to the department store. - Parts of the hypermarket complex may be rented out to other traders. - they are frequently sited on the outskirts of towns, where sites are cheaper. - good parking is provided and some late night trading 8.) Mail-order: products are sold through the mail order method: - advertising in the press, TV, radio, inviting potential customers to buy by post. - direct selling to customers choosing articles from a catalogue at home Advantages - interest free credit often given - buying in comfort of home - goods chosen at

leisure Disadvantage: - prices often more expensive than shops - difficult to assess quality from a catalogue 9.) Vending machines: - retail outlets open 24 hours a day and provide a wide variety of products (hot and cold snacks, confectionery, drinks, petrol). - they are sited in busy public spaces and they sometimes suffer as a result of vandalism. 2 7.B tétel Shopping Shopping is an activity that is enjoyed by many people. There are also people who hate shopping and say that it is waste of time. But whether the people like shopping or not they have to go to a shop, more or less frequently, to buy what they need because shopping is a necessity. There are many kinds of shops ranging from large department stores, self - service shops and supermarkets to small specialized shop such as the grocers, bakers, butchers, greengrocers, chemists, bookshop and boutique. Wherever the customers enter they are welcomed by shop assistants who are ready to help them: What can I do for you? Can

I help you? What will you have? What can I show you? These are the most frequent questions heard in shop since morning till late evening. Nowadays more and more customers prefer shopping in large department stores with self service, where everything can be found under one roof, to shopping in small specialized shops. At the grocers people can buy foodstuff including flour, sugar, salt, eggs, vegetable oil, stewed fruit, various kinds of tea and coffee, bottled beer and juice, sweets, chocolate, frozen and tinned vegetables and fruit. There are also dairy products such as milk, butter, cream, cheese and yogurt. At the bakers various kinds of fresh bread, rolls, buns and cakes can be bought. The butcher sells meat including pork, beef, lamb or poultry. Here we can buy smoked meat products such as ham, bacon, sausages and frankfurters. At the butchers people can also buy tinned and frozen meat and fish The people, who like to do gardening and some do-it-yourself work around the house,

frequently need some hardware. They can go to the ironmongers to buy hammer, pliers, nails and other tools and materials. At the stationers writing paper, wrapping paper, envelopes, notebooks, pens, pencils, rubber, rulers are kept. All the things needed by school children can be bought here Fresh vegetables and all kinds of fruit can be bought at the greengrocers. Many people prefer shopping at the market where there is a wider choice of potatoes, cabbages, beans, carrots, tomatoes, apples, pears, oranges or bananas. The chemists is a specialized shop where people can buy medicines. In Britain the chemist also keeps cosmetics and toilet supplies such as make-ups, shaving-cream, shampoo, soap and tooth-brushes. Boutiques sell the latest fashion Here especially the young people have a wide choice of dresses, shirts, skirts, blouses, pullovers and jeans. Some of the boutiques also offer leather goods such as jackets, shoes, bags. Many people like to go shopping to department stores The

department stores are large buildings usually several stores high. They have many departments which offer their customers all kinds of foodstuff, clothes, shoes, toys, sporting goods, books, stationary and furniture, all under one roof. Nearly all the big department stores have cafes, snack bars or restaurants where the people can relax when they are tired of shopping. The big department stores started in America and the idea was brought to England by Cordon Selfridge some 80 years ago. The currency in Great Britain is called penny and pounds, in America dollar and cent and in our country Slovak crown. Money can be divided into paper and small change One dollar (1 $) is called green back. There is Pyramid and old Seeing Eye and "In Got We Trust". People can pay with credit card, which is plastic, with checks or in cash 7.A tétel The Contract of Sale A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more person to do something in return for something else. A

contract may be written or oral Both parties should reasonably suppose that the agreement is legally binding. In most cases, however, writing is necessary to make a contract, as once it is made in writing, neither party can change it or interpret in different ways. A sales contract must be written clearly and precisely. It must state who buys what, from whom, for how much and under what conditions. A sales contract usually contains the following points: - The description of the goods, detailed specification is necessary. In some cases samples may be required. - The quantity of the goods. Certain goods are sold by piece, pair, dozen or score - Price and payment. The contract must state in what currency payment should be made - Delivery terms - The delivery date - The packing of the goods Conditions of Sale The General Conditions of Sale are usually printed on the back of the Order Form. 1. The present contract will only become obligatory when the form overleaf is filled in

and signed by both parties. 2. The purchase prices are to be understood in the currency set down in this contract 3. The time of delivery is always roughly estimated and fixed 4. In case of force major both parties are released from their obligations 5. Packing and delivery should be carried out in every detail at the Buyer’s instructions 6. Any complaint regarding quality and quantity must be made to the Seller within 10 days 7. Payments must be effected at the seat of the Seller 10.A tétel Means of payment (cheque, bill of exchange) Cheques Cheques are substitute for money and they are easy and safe to use. It is the owner’s direction to a bank to pay a sum of money to a named person or company. Parties to a cheque: - Drawer: he or she draws the cheque - Payee: he or she is the person, to whom the cheque is payable - Drawee: it is the bank, which pays The cheque is only valid if it is dated and signatured by the drawer in the bottom right-hand corner. Different types of

cheques: 1. Open cheques (not crossed): The payee could take it to a bank and obtain cash, but anyone else might also be able to cash it. (It concludes the payee’s name) 2. Crossed cheques: they have two parallel lines drawn vertically across them, and are safer than open cheques, because they can only be paid through somebody’s bank account. They can’t be exchanged for cash 3. General crossing: „and company” or „&Co” Is written between the lines The cheque can be paid only to the bank. 4. Special crossing: If the name of the bank is written between the lines the cheque can be paid only to the named bank. A cheque is a negotiable instrument of payment. It can be transferred from person to person before it is actually paid by the bank. The cheque can be transferred by endorsement 1. Blank endorsement on a cheque is an endorsement, which does not state that to whom is that cheque payable it will therefore be paid to the person who presents it. The endorser simply signs

his name on the back of the cheque. 2. Special endorsement on a cheque is that only one name of a person to whom or to whose order the cheque is payable. „Pay Beringer Robert or order” 3. Restrictive endorsement on a cheque is one name, which forbids further negotiation of the cheque. „Pay Beringer Robert only” Bills of exchange A bill of exchange is an unconditional order in writing, addressed by one person (drawer) to another (drawee) signed by the person giving, requiring the person to whom it is addressed to pay on demand or at a future fixed time a sum of money to a specified person. Bills of exchange can be transferred by endorsement. The person who transfers them is the endorser, the other one to whom it is transferred is the endorsee. Any endorser is fully liable for the bill and must pay it if the acceptor fails to pay. If an endorser does not want to be hold responsible for the bill, he writes a signature: „without recourse to me”. Bill of exchange must be

presented for payment during business hours on the day they are due. If the date of maturity falls on Sunday or any other holiday, the bill is due on the last working day. If it falls on a bank holiday, the bill is due on the next working day. If the drawee refuses the bill or to pay on maturity, the bill is said to be dishonoured and must be protested. The bill payable at a future time might sold to a bank or a discounting house, which pays the sum of the bills less interest and discounting charges. 10. B tétel Major treaties Treaty of Rome 1957 The treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) and the European Economic Community (EEC) the ground for the later European Community especially after the Merger Treaty in 1965. By the creation of the EEC: intention to develop a common market ( movement of goods, services, labour and capital is free.) approximation of economic policies, joint actions in order to be more efficient The treaty set up 4 community

institutions: The Assembly, The Council, The Commission, The Court of Justice Tasks to be carried out: elimination of customs duties, abolition of quantitative restrictions, common custom tariff and common commercial policy towards non members, ensuring the free flow of individuals, goods, services and capital, C.AP, approximation of legal systems, establishment of EIB, common transport policy, free competition as a general rule The 6 members agreed to set up: the economic and social committee, the Court of Auditors, the legislative and executive powers were divided between the Council and the Commission, Assembly has the right to consultation and control Treaty on the European Union This is the Maastricht treaty 7 Dec 1992, entered into force in 1 Nov 1993 Some of its fundamental provisions: common provisions, provision on a common foreign and security policy, provision on cooperation in justice and home affairs, provisions amending the treaty establishing the European Economic

Community 2 intergovernmental conferences: economic and monetary union, political union Maastricht: to achieve the convergence of their economies and to establish an economic and monetary union + single currency 3 stages: 3rd stage ECB will be established to promote the monetary union with its sole right to authorise printing of the single currency Developing EPC into CFSP (Common Foreign and Security Policy) defensive policy defensive alliance in 1954, The Court of Auditors becomes the 5th Community institution, Committee of The Regions is formed. Changes in the legislative procedure: co decision procedure is introduced as a new form of decision making expanding the parliament’s power. Subsidiarity principle European Investment Bank: non profit org., 1957 Treaty of Rome, in order to grant loans and give guarantees, each members has subscribed capital in the EIB. Soft loans are granted to less-developed members so that they can invest in industry, infrastructure, etc,. Non member

countries can also apply for loans at the EIB, however they need to guarantee that the sum of money will finance development projects. Hungary borrowed in 1990, light interest rate burden, AAA credit rating makes this possible, credit policy is drafted by 15 finance ministers and Board of Governors. 1 11. A tétel Bills Of Exchange A bill of exchange is an unconditional order in writing, addressed by one person (drawer) to another (drawee) signed by the person giving it, requiring the person to whom it is addressed to pay on demand or at a fixed future time a sum of money to a specified person. Bills of Exchange can be transferred by endorsement. The person who transfers them is the endorser, the other one to whom it is transferred is the endorsee. Any endorser is fully liable for the bill and must pay it if the acceptor fails to pay. If an endorser does not want to be hold responsible for the bill, he writes a signature: without recourse to me. Bill of exchange must be presented

for payment during business hours on the day they are due. If the date of maturity falls on Sunday or any other holiday, the bill is due on the last working day. If it falls on a bank holiday, the bill is due on the next working day. If the drawee refuses the bill or to pay on maturity, the bill is said to be dishonoured and must be protested. The bill payable at a future time might sold to a bank or a discounting house, which pays the sum of the bills less interest and discounting charges. Terms of Payment There are four basic terms of payment used in foreign trade: 1. Payment in advance is the most advantageous for the seller and disadvantageous for the buyer. It is not very often employed, except when the goods represent high value 2. Documents against Payment is more often employed This means that the buyer and seller agree upon payment simultaneously with the delivery. Because of the distance between the partners the problem is solved so that while the goods have been dispatched

and are on their way to the buyer, the documents are given to the buyer against payment of the countervalue. 3. The most usual method of payment is the Letter of Credit The banks (one in the seller’s country, one in the buyer’s country) are entrusted to carry out the task a Letter of Credit charges them with. The procedure of establishing a Letter of Credit is the following> The buyer deposits a certain amount of money (covering the countervalue of the goods) in his bank and instructs it to open L/C in favour of the seller. The buyer’s bank informs the seller’s bank about a Letter of Credit opened in the seller’s favour and asks the bank to advise the seller about this fact. The L/C is valid to a certain date which is clearly indicated in it. Its amount can be paid to the beneficiary only if the conditions are fulfilled by him up to that time. The validity of the L/C can be extended. 4. Payment after delivery is just as disadvantageous for the exporter as payment in

advance is for the importer. It is rarely used and is granted only to firms of reliable financial standing. 11. B tétel EU institutions European Council (Európa Tanács): It is made up of the Heads of State or Government and the President of the European Commission and assisted by the Foreign Ministers. It meets twice a year in the capital of the member country whose head of state is currently the president of the Council of Ministers. Task: - discussing issues relating to the EU, especially foreign affairs - it doesn’t make laws - It makes key political decisions on of the most important, most sensitive, most controversial, and most difficult matters Council of the European Union = Council of Ministers, based in Brussels. (Tanács) The main decision-making body. It is composed of one representative (usually ministers) from the government of each member state, who are responsible to their national parliaments and public opinion. It sets its political objectives, co-ordinate

their national policies and resolve differences between themselves and with other institutions. It is entrusted with deciding major policy issues for the EU, which includes approving the Commission’s proposed policies. It also makes the final decision on all EU legislation. European Commission, Brussels (Bizottság) It is the EU’s civil service. Its commissioners are nominated by the governments of the EU countries for 5-year renewable terms; consist of a president, 6 vice presidents and 13 other members. European Parliament Is elected by direct universal suffrage (általános választójog). It sits in Strasbourg It comprises 626 members, which are elected for 5 years. The last election was in 1999 The representatives are seated in Parliament by political party, not nationality Court of Justice, sits in Luxembourg (Bíróság) It is the chief judicial body of the EU. It is composed of one representative from each member state. There are 15 judges assisted by 9 Advocates-General

(főügyész), who submit reasoned opinions to the court on the cases on which it must give a ruling. The judges are appointed by agreement with the national governments for a renewable term of 6 years. Their independence is guaranteed. - it interprets the provisions of EU law - It attempts to ensure that the application of the law is consistent and uniform in all member states European Court of Auditors is located in Luxembourg It consists of 15 members appointed by unanimous decision of the Council after consultation of Parliament. The President is elected by the members from among themselves for a threeyear renewable term It is the taxpayers’ representative and it checks that all Union revenue has been collected and expenditure incurred in a lawful and regular manner. - It makes an annual report and special report (about issues in connection with the budget) - It delivers opinions at the request of the other institutions. - On its own initiative, it may at any time submit its

observations on specific questions 1 12. A tétel Payment by Letter of Credit It is a reliable and safe method of payment, and it protects the seller as well as the buyer. It is an undertaking given by a bank at the request of a customer to pay a particular amount in an agreed currency to a beneficiary on condition that the beneficiary presents stipulated documents within a prescribed time limit. How does a L/C work? 1. The buyer (importer) asks his bank to issue or open a L/C in favour of the seller for the amount of the purchase. There is usually a special application form, which the buyer fills in and sends to his bank. It states all the main points of the parties and the action. 2. The importer’s bank will then select a bank in the exporter’s country to act as its agent, and will notify them that the credit has been opened. 3. The agent bank will notify the exporter that a credit has been opened, and they may add their own confirmation by promising to see that the

conditions of payment against the documents will be fulfilled. If they confirm the letter, the L/C is a confirmed credit. 4. The buyer (exporter) ships the goods before the credit expires and sends the shipping documents to the agent bank that checks the documents against the conditions and pays him. 5. The agent bank will then send the documents and debit the importer’s bank with the cost and charges. 6. The importer’s bank then checks the documents, pays the agent bank and sends the documents to the importer so that he can claim the goods. Types of the Letter of Credit 1. Irrevocable: The buyer cannot cancel the credit 2. Confirmed: A bank in the seller’s country pays the credit 3. Sight or straight credit: Immediate payment of the full amount on presentation of the documents. (Cash payment) 4. Acceptance credit: Payment of the full amount at maturity The contract specifies payment at a future date with a bill of exchange. After presentation of the documents, the bill can be

discounted in order to obtain the credit amount (less discount) immediately. 5. Deferred payment credit: Payment of the full amount at maturity The contract specifies payment at a future date without a bill of exchange; therefore there is no possibility of discounting. It can be accepted as security for an advance 6. Red clause credit: Under it the seller can obtain an advance from the correspondent bank, but it is the issuing bank that assumes liability. This advance is intended to finance the manufacture or purchase of the goods, which are going to be delivered under the documentary credit. 7. Revolving credit: When the goods are to be delivered in part shipments (instalments) at specified intervals, payment can be made under a revolving credit, which covers the value of each instalment as it is delivered. After the utilization of the first amount the next portion becomes automatically available. 1 8. Negotiation credit: (or commercial letter of credit) Payment of the credit

amount will be made by any bank, not only by the advising bank. (Negotiation means the purchase and sale of bills of exchange.) 9. Transferable credit: The beneficiary may transfer his claim under that credit to a third party. If the credit is divisible and transferable, the amount can be paid to several beneficiaries. 10. Back-to-back credit: It is used when a middleman wishes to transfer to a supplier his claim under a documentary credit, which is not transferable. The middleman’s bank, accepting the first credit issued in the middleman’s favour, opens a second credit in favour of the supplier. 2 13. A, 14 A tétel Transport (air, road, rail and sea) Development of Transport In primitive times animals were used for transportation. Vehicles were pulled by dogs, horses, elephants and camels. They are still an important means of transport in various parts of the world. Water transport started early in cities, London, Paris, Rome which are situated on a river or near to the

sea. Road making began at a period when water transport was already highly organized. The first roads in Hungary were also built by the Romans At the end of the 18th century the steam engine was invented. The first public railway in the world, the Stockton and Darlington line opened in England in 1825. At the same time steamships began to operate. In the 20th century steam engines were replaced by electric engines on the railways and by diesel engines. Nowadays some modern ships use atomic energy. An important development in road transport was the invention of the internal combustion engine. Development of the car and truck industry is very important But for transportation of heavy freight (coal, iron, ore), especially over long distances, railways must still be relied upon. The beginning of the 20th century saw the invention of the airplane At the beginning airlines were used for passenger transport. The first type of air freight was mail, which took up relative little space. Now

special aircraft have been designed and are flown on a “cargo only” basis. Rail transport: Today there is a hardly a country in the world, where the railways do not lose money. Rail traffic is fast when actually moving. If goods are to go a long way, rail transport is probably the best. The economic limit is 200 miles Below that limit, road transport is more economic It is economical in the use of labour, because one driver and two guards can take 60 tons of carriages. Compared with road transport, where lories can take only 32 tons, we can see the advantages of the rail transport. Railway transports has a big problem, and it is the terminal problem. It does not transport for door to door Goods must therefore be loaded and unloaded at terminals to complete their journey by road vehicles. The document used in rail transport is the Consignment Note, which is a receipt for the goods and a contract of carriage. It is made out in several copies. The first copy accompanies the goods It

is the duplicate of the Consignment Note. Road Transport: The chief advantages of road transport are: - Terminal handling is eliminated by door-to-door delivery. - Delivery is made direct to the consignee’s premises - Road vehicles are extremely flexible, and computerized route charts can now be prepared which give the most direct or most economic route to be followed. - Specialized vehicles of great variety have been produced The document used for international road transport is the Consignment Note. Air transport: In modern time an increasing amount of goods is travelling by air. It’s very expensive, but a saving can be made on packing cost, and the insurance premium may be lower. This type of transportation is used when merchandise is urgently required (medicines, fruit, flowers, early vegetables.) or the goods represent a high value (jewellery, furs, watches) 1 Advantages: - the speed of transport - the exporter and the importer are closer to a city with an airport than a

seaport Disadvantages: - Its quite expensive - It is unsuitable, of course, for large and bulky goods over, say 30 tonnes in weight. The document used in Air Transport is the Air Waybill. This is a receipt for the goods, and a contract of carriage. Sea transport: Shipping is divided into two main classes: 1. chartered vessels 2. conferences and liner services Chartered vessels are designed mainly to carry such cargoes as coal, ores, grain, timber etc. The advantage of this shipping is that the ship steamer can be at the port when the cargo is required to be moved. There is a minimum of waste movement Cargo liner companies provide regular traffic between ports in different parts of the world. They are called “conferences” because they hold meetings to agree on routes, timetables, rates. They sail according to a fixed schedule, have fixed routing and the freight rates are quoted according to fixed tariffs. Sailing lists shows the date of sailing, the name of the ship, the closing

date, i.e the latest date on which the vessel receives cargo, and the date of arrival at the port of destination. The trade in shipping space is mostly in the hands of shipbrokers. The most important centres of such a trade are exchanges like the Baltic Mercantile and Shipping Exchange in London; moreover there are many other international or local markets at important ports. Pipelines: Pipelines, as a means of transporting gas, oil or water have assumed a new importance in recent years. The capital costs of installing a pipeline can be considerable, but once laid, the running costs can be low in terms of unit transport cost per kilometre. Forwarding: It is highly important for a foreign trading company to reduce transport costs. The task of minimizing costs of carriage requires special knowledge and training. The agent serving the purpose is called a forwarder. The forwarding agent is bound to enter in his own name and on the principal’s account into contracts of carriage necessary

to the transportation of the consignment, while the principal is bound to pay due remuneration therefore. 2 8.A tétel Incoterms Standardization of Commercial Terms Sending goods from one country to another can be a risky business. If the goods are lost or damaged on the way, disputes may arise between buyer and seller. To avoid such disputes, it is usual to agree, who bears the costs and risks of the delivery of the goods and up to what point. In the course of the long history of international trade, special commercial terms have been developed. These terms make it possible for the buyer and seller agree on the terms of the sale of the goods without having to define in detail their respective responsibilities in each particular case. The best-known such terms are Incoterms They were first formulated by the International Chamber of Commerce. Incoterms The latest edition of Incoterms contains more than a dozen commercial terms. EXW (Ex Works) The seller places the goods at the

disposal of the buyer at the factory. The buyer bears all charges and risks from the time the goods have been placed at his disposal. He pays the price, customs duties taxes, and insurance He pays for the documents that he may need. FOB (Free on board) The seller places the goods on board a ship named in the sales contract. The buyer bears the risk of loss of or damage to the goods from the time the goods have passed the ship’s rail. The buyer will bear all the expenses and charges of the freight, insurance, etc. CIF (Cost, insurance and freight) The seller delivers the goods to the named port of destination and pays the freight charges. Buyer bears the risk of loss of or damage to the goods from the time the goods have passed the ship’s rail. The seller must also provide all the necessary documents. CFR (Carriage and freight) is essentially the same as CIF, except that it doesn’t include insurance. DCT (carriage paid to the named point of destination) DCT means that the seller

pays the freight for the carriage of the goods to the point of destination. The buyer bears the risk from the time the goods have been placed to the first carrier. DCT is used in all kinds of transport, including ferries, containers and trucks. CIP (carriage and insurance paid to) The same as DCT, expect that the seller must pay insurance against the risk of loss of or damage. DES (Ex ship) The seller must make the goods available to the buyer on board the ship at the destination named in the contract. The seller bears the full cost and risk of bringing the goods there. DAF (Delivered at frontier) The goods are carried by rail or by road. The seller places the goods at the buyer’s disposal at the frontier. The buyer bears all the costs and risks from the time the goods have been placed at his disposal. DDP (Delivered duty paid) 8.B tétel Brief history of European integration After 1945 Europe was in ruins both: politically and economically. A number of countries had to rebuild

or repair their economies. In these years the concept of a united Europe emerged A more modest form of a cooperation was established, first the uniting the coal and steel industries of France and West Germany. This was followed by the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951. The ECSC was the predecessor of the European Economic Community The European Economic Community (EEC) also called the Common Market was founded by the Treaty of Rome in 1957. The first member countries were France, West Germany, Italy The Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxemburg. Britain, the Irish Republic and Denmark joined the Common Market in 1973. Since then Greece, Spain and Portugal have also become a member countries The purpose of the EEC is to promote the economies of the member states. One of the most important objectives is to remove restrictions on trade and on movements of labour and capital between its members. Entry and exit visas and work permits between member countries are no

longer required, but passports and residence permits are still necesarry. The EEC also fixes minimum prices for various farm products The EEC has its headquarters in Brussels. Today the EEC is simply called European Community (EC). The World Bank and the IMF Bretton Woods is the name of a town in New Hampshire, USA. An international conferncewas convened in July 1944 to discuss ways and means of avoiding the international economic difficulties which were expected to occur after the Second World War. As a result the International Bank for Reconstruction and Develpoment, known as the World Bank, was established in December 1945. Thwe World Bank is owned by more than 125 member countries and has its headquarters in Washington D.C The World Bank extends long-term loans to member countries for development projects such as dams electrification, agricultural development, and public health. Loans are to be repaid in the same currency within 25 years. The Bretton Woods conference also

established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) whit its headquarters in Washington D.C Its objectives are (1) to stabilize rates of exchange, (2) to facilitate multilateral clearing systems, and (3) to eliminate unecesarry restrictions on foreign trade. The IMF provides short-term loans of about five years to countries in balance of payments difficulties. 1 Angol tételek 9.A tétel Documents in Foreign Trade The most important documents used in foreign trade are the following: 1. Shipping documents – the most important shipping document is the Bill of Lading (B/L). The Bill of Lading is made out by the ship-owner usually in sets of three originals with two copies. The originals are sent to the buyer, one remains with the seller and one is given to the master of the ship. The B/L states the name of the ship carrying the goods, the port of embarkation and the port of destination, and the rate of freight. It also gives the quantity, quality and value of the goods taken on

board. A Waybill is made out, when the goods are carried by rail or road It contains the description of the goods and the names of the importer and the exporter. A Railway Consigment Note is a document used in international railway transport similar to the B/L, made out by the sender of the goods. An Air Waybill is used when the goods are transported by air freight. 2. Insurance documents – 10 percent of the value of the goods 3. Invoices – These usually give the full description of the goods (quantity, quality and price), the name and address of the buyer and seller etc. - Commercial Invoice - Consular Invoice - Customs Invoice 4. Various certificates - The certificate of Origin, which states the country from which the goods have originated. - Certificate of Quality 1 Angol szigorlati tételek 1. a;) Commercial treaties b;) Brief history 2. a;) Retail trade b;) Major treaties 3. a;) Air, road and rail transport b;) FOB, CIP 4. a;) Trade fairs and exhibition b;) Political

integration 5. a;) Payment by Letter of credit b;) Contract of sale 6. a;) Means of payment (cheque, bill of exchange) b;) International trade 7. a;) Incoterms in general, major changes in the version of 2000 b;) Institutions of EU 8. a;) Marketing and advertising b;) Customs 9. a;) Means of controlling foreign trade (customs) b;) Shipping documents 10. a;) Decision making b;) Development of transport 11. a;) Documents used in foreign trade b;) Economic integration 12. a;) Sea transport (bill of lading, history) b;) Brief history 1 13. a;) Retail trade b;) Commercial treaties 14. a;) Terms of payment b;) World bank and the IMF 15. a;) Marketing and advertising b;) Transport by land 16. a;) Major treaties b;) Transport by air 17. a;) The means of controlling foreign trade b;) Contract of sale 2